The water footprint of olives and olive oil in Spain

This paper evaluates the water footprint of Spanish olives and olive oil over the period 1997-2008. In particular, it analyses the three colour components of the water footprint: green (rainwater stored in the soil), blue (surface and groundwater) and grey (freshwater required to assimilate load of pollutants). Apparent water productivity and virtual water embedded in olive oil exports have also been studied. Results show more than 99.5% of the water footprint of one liter of bottled olive oil is related to the olive production, whereas less than 0.5% is due to the other components such as bottle, cap and label. Over the studied period, the green water footprint in absolute terms of Spanish olive oil production represents about 72% in rainfed systems and just 12% in irrigated olive orchards. Blue and grey water footprints represent 6% and 10% of the national water footprint, respectively. It is shown that olive production is concentrated in regions with the smallest water footprint per unit of product. However, the increase of groundwater consumption in the main olive producing region (Andalusia), from 98 to 378 Mm3 between 1997 and 2008, has added significant pressure in the upstream Guadalquivir basin. This raises questions about the sustainability of irrigated olive orchards for export from the region. Finally, the virtual water related to olive oil exports illustrate the importance of green water footprint of rainfed olives amounting to about 77% of the total virtual water exports.

Species of Fusarium isolated from river and sea water of Southeastern Spain and pathogenicity on four plant species

Species of Fusarium were isolated from water samples collected from the Andarax River and coastal sea water of the Mediterranean in Granada and Almería provinces of southeastern Spain. In total, 18 water samples were analyzed from the Andarax River, and 10 species of Fusarium were isolated: Fusarium anthophilum, F. acuminatum, F. chlamydosporum, F. culmorum, F. equiseti, F. verticillioides, F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum, F. solani, and F. solani. When considering the samples by their origins, 77.8% of the river water samples yielded at least one species of Fusarium , with F. oxysporum comprising 72.2% of the total isolates. In the case of marine water, 45.5% of the samples yielded at least one species of Fusarium, with F. solani comprising 36.3% of the total isolates. The pathogenicity of 41 isolates representing nine of the species collected from river an sea water during the study ws evluated on barley, kohlrabe, melon, and tomato. Inoculation with F. acuminatum, F. chlamydosporum, F. culmorum, F. equiseti, F. verticillioides, F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum F. solani, and F. sambucinum resulted in pre-and post-emergence damping off. Pathogenicity of Fusarium isolates did not seem to be related to the origin of the isolates (sea water or fresh water). However, the presence of pathogenic species of Fusarium in river water flowing to the sea could indicate long-distance dispersal in natural water environments

The water footprint of a river basin with a special focus on groundwater: The case of Guadalquivir basin (Spain).

In addition to revealing the hidden link between products or consumption patterns of populations and their needs in terms of water resources, the water footprint (WF) indicator generates new debates and solutions on water management at basin scale. This paper analyses the green and blue WF of the Guadalquivir basin and its integration with environmental water consumption, with a special emphasis on the WF from groundwater and its consequences on current and future depletion of surface water. In a normal year, green WF (agriculture and pastures) amounts to 190 mm on a total green water consumption of 410 mm, while the blue WF (50 mm) represents half of the total blue water flows. This constitutes a first overview and alternative interpretations of the WF as human water appropriation are introduced. The blue WF is almost entirely associated to agriculture (40 mm). The presentation of its evolution over the period 1997?2008 reveals the rising WF from groundwater (13 mm in 2008), 86% being current consumption of surface flows. This evolution is particularly ascribed to the recent development of irrigated olive groves from groundwater. To prevent a higher pressure on the environment, this new use, like all others (thermo-solar plants, tourism, etc.), could have been obtained from the reallocation of water from crops with low water productivity. It means that water is not lacking in the Guadalquivir basin if the governance setting integrates more flexibility and equity in the allocation of water to address climatic variability and the emergence of new demands.