Soil compaction and vegetation cover in a Scots pine stand at the Mediterranean rangelands

Right development of ROOT SYSTEMS is essential to ensure seedling survival in the initial stages of natural regeneration processes. Soil compaction determines this development both because of its influence on soil Tª & moisture dynamics and for its direct effect on soil mechanical impedance to root growth. All this effects can be assessed as a whole through soil penetration resistance (Soil Strength) measurements. SOIL STRENGTH has been usually evaluated in forest research in connection with severe disturbances derived from heavy machinery works during forest operations. Nevertheless, undisturbed soils are also expected to show different levels of compaction for root development. Organic matter modifies soil structure and so on porosity, compaction and resultant soil resistance to penetration. Its concentration in surface layers is rather related to vegetation cover composition and density. So within forest stands, a relationship is expected to be found between VEGETATION COVER density and compaction measured as resistance to penetration (soil strength)

The relationship between soil geochemistry and the bioaccessibility of trace elements in playground soil

A total of 32 samples of surficial soil were collected from 16 playground areas in Madrid (Spain), in order to investigate the importance of the geochemistry of the soil on subsequent bioaccessibility of trace elements. The in vitro bioaccessibility of As, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn was evaluated by means of two extraction processes that simulate the gastric environment and one that reproduces a gastric + intestinal digestion sequence. The results of the in vitro bioaccessibility were compared against aqua regia extractions (“total” concentration), and it was found that total concentrations of As, Cu, Pb and Zn were double those of bioaccessible values, whilst that of Cr was ten times higher. Whereas the results of the gastric + intestinal extraction were affected by a high uncertainty, both gastric methods offered very similar and consistent results, with bioaccessibilities following the order: As = Cu = Pb = Zn > Co > Ni > Cr, and ranging from 63 to 7 %. Selected soil properties including pH, organic matter, Fe and CaCO3 content were determined to assess their influence on trace element bioaccessibility, and it was found that Cu, Pb and Zn were predominantly bound to organic matter and, to a lesser extent, Fe oxides. The former fraction was readily accessible in the gastric solution, whereas Fe oxides seemed to recapture negatively charged chloride complexes of these elements in the gastric solution, lowering their bioaccessibility. The homogeneous pH of the playground soils included in the study does not influence trace element bioaccessibility to any significant extent except for Cr, where the very low gastric accessibility seems to be related to the strongly pH-dependent formation of complexes with organic matter. The results for As, which have been previously described and discussed in detail in Mingot et al. (Chemosphere 84: 1386–1391, 2011), indicate a high gastric bioaccessibility for this element as a consequence of its strong association with calcium carbonate and the ease with which these bonds are broken in the gastric solution. The calculation of risk assessments are therefore dependant on the methodology used and the specific environment they address. This has impacts on management strategies formulated to ensure that the most vulnerable of society, children, can live and play without adverse consequences to their health.

Seasonal evolution of soil respiration in a mixed forestry plantation of walnuts (Juglans × intermedia Carr.) and alders (Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Duby) in Domaine de Restinclières (France)

The ecological intensification of crops is proposed as a solution to the growing demand of agricultural and forest resources, in opposition to intensive monocultures. The introduction of mixed cultures as mixtures between nitrogen fixing species and non nitrogen fixing species intended to increase crop yield as a result of an improvement of the available nitrogen and phosphorus in soil. Relationship between crops have received little attention despite the wide range of advantages that confers species diversity to these systems, such as increased productivity, resilience to disruption and ecological sustainability. Forests and forestry plantations can develop an important role in storing carbon in their tissues, especially in wood which become into durable product. A simplifying parameter to analyze the amount allocated carbon by plantation is the TBCA (total belowground carbon allocation), whereby, for short periods and mature plantations, is admitted as the subtraction between soil carbon efflux and litterfall. Soil respiration depends on a wide range of factors, such as soil temperature and soil water content, soil fertility, presence and type of vegetation, among others. The studied orchard is a mixed forestry plantation of hybrid walnuts(Juglans × intermedia Carr.) for wood and alders (Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Duby.), a nitrogen fixing specie through the actinomycete Frankia alni ((Woronin, 1866) Von Tubeuf 1895). The study area is sited at Restinclières, a green area near Montpellier (South of France). In the present work, soil respiration varied greatly throughout the year, mainly influenced by soil temperature. Soil water content did not significantly influence the response of soil respiration as it was constant during the measurement period and under no water stress conditions. Distance between nearest walnut and measurement was also a highly influential factor in soil respiration. Generally there was a decreasing trend in soil respiration when the distance to the nearest tree increased. It was also analyzed the response of soil respiration according to alder presence and fertilizer management (50 kg N·ha-1·año-1 from 1999 to 2010). None of these treatments significantly influenced soil respiration, although previous studies noticed an inhibition in rates of soil respiration under fertilized conditions and high rates of available nitrogen. However, treatments without fertilization and without alder presence obtained higher respiration rates in those cases with significant differences. The lack of significant differences between treatments may be due to the high coefficient of variation experienced by soil respiration measurements. Finally an asynchronous fluctuation was observed between soil respiration and litterfall during senescence period. This is possibly due to the slowdown in the emission of exudates by roots during senescence period, which are largely related to microbial activity.

Summer deficit irrigation in a hedgerow olive orchard cv. Arbequina: relationship between soil and tree water status, and growth and yield components

El potencial hídrico del tronco es una herramiento útil para el manejo del riego. Los umbrales de riego deben establecerse para cada periodo fisiológico. En este experimento, realizado en Arbequina en seto, se estudio la relacion entre los potenciales hídricos y la produccion de aceite. Cuando los potenciales hidricos son inferiores a -1.3 MPa el crecimiento vegetativo se reduce mas del 50%. En cuanto a la produccion, se observó que regando en Julio cuando se alcanzan potenciales cercanos a -2.9 MPa se puede ahorrar agua sin afectar a la produccion. Sin embargo en Agosto el potencial debe mantenerse por encima de -2 MPa para que no se resienta la producción.

Small-scale variation of vegetation in a mixed forest understorey is partly controlled by the effect of overstory composition on litter accumulation

We investigated how richness and composition of vascular plant species in the understory of a mixed hardwood forest stand varied with respect to the abundance and composition of the overstory. The stand is in central Spain and represents the southernmost range of distribution of several tree and herbaceous species in Europe. Understory species were identified in 46 quadrats (0.25 m2) where variables litter depth and light availability were measured. In addition, we estimated tree density, basal area, and percent basal area by tree species within 6-m-radius areas around each plot. Species richness and composition were studied using path analysis and scale-dependent geostatistical methods, respectively. We found that the relative abundance of certain trees species in the overstory was more important than total overstory abundance in explaining understory species richness. Richness decreased as soil litter depth increased, and soil litter increased as the relative proportion of Fagus sylvatica in the overstory increased, which accounted for a negative, indirect effect of Fagus sylvatica on richness. Regarding understory species composition, we found that some species distributed preferentially below certain tree species. For example, Melica uniflora was most frequent below Fagus sylvatica and Quercus petraea while the increasing proportion of Q. pyrenaica in the overstory favored the presence of Cruciata glabra, Arenaria montana, Prunus avium, Conopodium bourgaei, Holcus mollis, Stellaria media and Galium aparine in the understory. Overall, these results emphasize the importance of individual tree species in controlling the assemblage and richness of understory species in mixed stands. We conclude that soil litter accumulation is one way through which overstory composition shapes the understory community.

Shadow Analysis of Soil Surface Roughness Compared to the Chain Set Method and Direct Measurement of Micro-relief.

Erosion potential and the effects of tillage can be evaluated from quantitative descriptions of soil surface roughness. The present study therefore aimed to fill the need for a reliable, low-cost and convenient method to measure that parameter. Based on the interpretation of micro-topographic shadows, this new procedure is primarily designed for use in the field after tillage. The principle underlying shadow analysis is the direct relationship between soil surface roughness and the shadows cast by soil structures under fixed sunlight conditions. The results obtained with this method were compared to the statistical indexes used to interpret field readings recorded by a pin meter. The tests were conducted on 4-m2 sandy loam and sandy clay loam plots divided into 1-m2 subplots tilled with three different tools: chisel, tiller and roller. The highly significant correlation between the statistical indexes and shadow analysis results obtained in the laboratory as well as in the field for all the soil?tool combinations proved that both variability (CV) and dispersion (SD) are accommodated by the new method. This procedure simplifies the interpretation of soil surface roughness and shortens the time involved in field operations by a factor ranging from 12 to 20.

Implementation of a module for risk of ozone impacts assessment to vegetation in the integrated assessment modelling system for the Iberian peninsula. Evaluation for wheat and holm oak

A module to estimate risks of ozone damage to vegetation has been implemented in the Integrated Assessment Modelling system for the Iberian Peninsula. It was applied to compute three different indexes for wheat and Holm oak; daylight AOT40 (cumulative ozone concentration over 40 ppb), cumulative ozone exposure index according to the Directive 2008/50/EC (AOT40-D) and PODY (Phytotoxic Ozone Dose over a given threshold of Y nmol m−2 s−1). The use of these indexes led to remarkable differences in spatial patterns of relative ozone risks on vegetation. Ozone critical levels were exceeded in most of the modelling domain and soil moisture content was found to have a significant impact on the results. According to the outputs of the model, daylight AOT40 constitutes a more conservative index than the AOT40-D. Additionally, flux-based estimations indicate high risk areas in Portugal for both wheat and Holm oak that are not identified by AOT-based methods.

Ground cover and leaf area index relationship in a grass, legume and crucifer crop

Canopy characterization is essential for describing the interaction of a crop with its environment. The goal of this work was to determine the relationship between leaf area index (LAI) and ground cover (GC) in a grass, a legume and a crucifer crop, and to assess the feasibility of using these relationships as well as LAI-2000 readings to estimate LAI. Twelve plots were sown with either barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), vetch (Vicia sativa L.), or rape (Brassica napus L.). On 10 sampling dates the LAI (both direct and LAI-2000 estimations), fraction intercepted of photosynthetically active radiation (FIPAR) and GC were measured. Linear and quadratic models fitted to the relationship between the GC and LAI for all of the crops, but they reached a plateau in the grass when the LAI mayor que 4. Before reaching full cover, the slope of the linear relationship between both variables was within the range of 0.025 to 0.030. The LAI-2000 readings were linearly correlated with the LAI but they tended to overestimation. Corrections based on the clumping effect reduced the root mean square error of the estimated LAI from the LAI-2000 readings from 1.2 to less than 0.50 for the crucifer and the legume, but were not effective for barley.

Estrategias de monitorización de CO2 y otros gases en los estudios de análogos naturales

La Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM) y la Università degli Studi di Firenze (UniFi), bajo la coordinación técnica de AMPHOS21, participan desde 2009 en el proyecto de investigación “Estrategias de Monitorización de CO2 y otros gases en el estudio de Análogos Naturales”, financiado por la Fundación Ciudad de la Energía (CIUDEN) en el marco del Proyecto Compostilla OXYCFB300 (http://www.compostillaproject.eu), del Programa “European Energy Program for Recovery - EEPR”. El objetivo principal del proyecto fue el desarrollo y puesta a punto de metodologías de monitorización superficiales para su aplicación en el seguimiento y control de los emplazamientos donde se realice el almacenamiento geológico de CO2, analizando técnicas que permitan detectar y cuantificar las posibles fugas de CO2 a la atmósfera. Los trabajos se realizaron tanto en análogos naturales (españoles e italianos) como en la Planta de Desarrollo Tecnológico de Almacenamiento de CO2 de Hontomín. Las técnicas analizadas se centran en la medición de gases y aguas superficiales (de escorrentía y manantiales). En cuanto a la medición de gases se analizó el flujo de CO2 que emana desde el suelo a la atmósfera y la aplicabilidad de trazadores naturales (como el radón) para la detección e identificación de las fugas de CO2. En cuanto al análisis químico de las aguas se analizaron los datos geoquímicos e isotópicos y los gases disueltos en las aguas de los alrededores de la PDT de Hontomín, con objeto de determinar qué parámetros son los más apropiados para la detección de una posible migración del CO2 inyectado, o de la salmuera, a los ambientes superficiales. Las medidas de flujo de CO2 se realizaron con la técnica de la cámara de acúmulo. A pesar de ser una técnica desarrollada y aplicada en diferentes ámbitos científicos se estimó necesario adaptar un protocolo de medida y de análisis de datos a las características específicas de los proyectos de captura y almacenamiento de CO2 (CAC). Donde los flujos de CO2 esperados son bajos y en caso de producirse una fuga habrá que detectar pequeñas variaciones en los valores flujo con un “ruido” en la señal alto, debido a actividad biológica en el suelo. La medida de flujo de CO2 mediante la técnica de la cámara de acúmulo se puede realizar sin limpiar la superficie donde se coloca la cámara o limpiando y esperando al reequilibrio del flujo después de la distorsión al sistema. Sin embargo, los resultados obtenidos después de limpiar y esperar muestran menor dispersión, lo que nos indica que este procedimiento es el mejor para la monitorización de los complejos de almacenamiento geológico de CO2. El protocolo de medida resultante, utilizado para la obtención de la línea base de flujo de CO2 en Hontomín, sigue los siguiente pasos: a) con una espátula se prepara el punto de medición limpiando y retirando el recubrimiento vegetal o la primera capa compacta de suelo, b) se espera un tiempo para la realización de la medida de flujo, facilitando el reequilibrio del flujo del gas tras la alteración provocada en el suelo y c) se realiza la medida de flujo de CO2. Una vez realizada la medición de flujo de CO2, y detectada si existen zonas de anomalías, se debe estimar la cantidad de CO2 que se está escapando a la atmósfera (emanación total), con el objetivo de cuantificar la posible fuga. Existen un amplio rango de metodologías para realizar dicha estimación, siendo necesario entender cuáles son las más apropiadas para obtener el valor más representativo del sistema. En esta tesis se comparan seis técnicas estadísticas: media aritmética, estimador insegado de la media (aplicando la función de Sichel), remuestreo con reemplazamiento (bootstrap), separación en diferentes poblaciones mediante métodos gráficos y métodos basados en criterios de máxima verosimilitud, y la simulación Gaussiana secuencial. Para este análisis se realizaron ocho campañas de muestreo, tanto en la Planta de Desarrollo Tecnológico de Hontomón como en análogos naturales (italianos y españoles). Los resultados muestran que la simulación Gaussiana secuencial suele ser el método más preciso para realizar el cálculo, sin embargo, existen ocasiones donde otros métodos son más apropiados. Como consecuencia, se desarrolla un procedimiento de actuación para seleccionar el método que proporcione el mejor estimador. Este procedimiento consiste, en primer lugar, en realizar un análisis variográfico. Si existe una autocorrelación entre los datos, modelizada mediante el variograma, la mejor técnica para calcular la emanación total y su intervalo de confianza es la simulación Gaussiana secuencial (sGs). Si los datos son independientes se debe comprobar la distribución muestral, aplicando la media aritmética o el estimador insesgado de la media (Sichel) para datos normales o lognormales respectivamente. Cuando los datos no son normales o corresponden a una mezcla de poblaciones la mejor técnica de estimación es la de remuestreo con reemplazamiento (bootstrap). Siguiendo este procedimiento el máximo valor del intervalo de confianza estuvo en el orden del ±20/25%, con la mayoría de valores comprendidos entre ±3,5% y ±8%. La identificación de las diferentes poblaciones muestrales en los datos de flujo de CO2 puede ayudar a interpretar los resultados obtenidos, toda vez que esta distribución se ve afectada por la presencia de varios procesos geoquímicos como, por ejemplo, una fuente geológica o biológica del CO2. Así pues, este análisis puede ser una herramienta útil en el programa de monitorización, donde el principal objetivo es demostrar que no hay fugas desde el reservorio a la atmósfera y, si ocurren, detectarlas y cuantificarlas. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que el mejor proceso para realizar la separación de poblaciones está basado en criterios de máxima verosimilitud. Los procedimientos gráficos, aunque existen pautas para realizarlos, tienen un cierto grado de subjetividad en la interpretación de manera que los resultados son menos reproducibles. Durante el desarrollo de la tesis se analizó, en análogos naturales, la relación existente entre el CO2 y los isótopos del radón (222Rn y 220Rn), detectándose en todas las zonas de emisión de CO2 una relación positiva entre los valores de concentración de 222Rn en aire del suelo y el flujo de CO2. Comparando la concentración de 220Rn con el flujo de CO2 la relación no es tan clara, mientras que en algunos casos aumenta en otros se detecta una disminución, hecho que parece estar relacionado con la profundidad de origen del radón. Estos resultados confirmarían la posible aplicación de los isótopos del radón como trazadores del origen de los gases y su aplicación en la detección de fugas. Con respecto a la determinación de la línea base de flujo CO2 en la PDT de Hontomín, se realizaron mediciones con la cámara de acúmulo en las proximidades de los sondeos petrolíferos, perforados en los ochenta y denominados H-1, H-2, H-3 y H-4, en la zona donde se instalarán el sondeo de inyección (H-I) y el de monitorización (H-A) y en las proximidades de la falla sur. Desde noviembre de 2009 a abril de 2011 se realizaron siete campañas de muestreo, adquiriéndose más de 4.000 registros de flujo de CO2 con los que se determinó la línea base y su variación estacional. Los valores obtenidos fueron bajos (valores medios entre 5 y 13 g•m-2•d-1), detectándose pocos valores anómalos, principalmente en las proximidades del sondeo H-2. Sin embargo, estos valores no se pudieron asociar a una fuente profunda del CO2 y seguramente estuvieran más relacionados con procesos biológicos, como la respiración del suelo. No se detectaron valores anómalos cerca del sistema de fracturación (falla Ubierna), toda vez que en esta zona los valores de flujo son tan bajos como en el resto de puntos de muestreo. En este sentido, los valores de flujo de CO2 aparentemente están controlados por la actividad biológica, corroborado al obtenerse los menores valores durante los meses de otoño-invierno e ir aumentando en los periodos cálidos. Se calcularon dos grupos de valores de referencia, el primer grupo (UCL50) es 5 g•m-2•d-1 en las zonas no aradas en los meses de otoño-invierno y 3,5 y 12 g•m-2•d-1 en primavera-verano para zonas aradas y no aradas, respectivamente. El segundo grupo (UCL99) corresponde a 26 g•m-2•d- 1 durante los meses de otoño-invierno en las zonas no aradas y 34 y 42 g•m-2•d-1 para los meses de primavera-verano en zonas aradas y no aradas, respectivamente. Flujos mayores a estos valores de referencia podrían ser indicativos de una posible fuga durante la inyección y posterior a la misma. Los primeros datos geoquímicos e isotópicos de las aguas superficiales (de escorrentía y de manantiales) en el área de Hontomín–Huermeces fueron analizados. Los datos sugieren que las aguas estudiadas están relacionadas con aguas meteóricas con un circuito hidrogeológico superficial, caracterizadas por valores de TDS relativamente bajos (menor a 800 mg/L) y una fácie hidrogeoquímica de Ca2+(Mg2+)-HCO3 −. Algunas aguas de manantiales se caracterizan por concentraciones elevadas de NO3 − (concentraciones de hasta 123 mg/l), lo que sugiere una contaminación antropogénica. Se obtuvieron concentraciones anómalas de of Cl−, SO4 2−, As, B y Ba en dos manantiales cercanos a los sondeos petrolíferos y en el rio Ubierna, estos componentes son probablemente indicadores de una posible mezcla entre los acuíferos profundos y superficiales. El estudio de los gases disueltos en las aguas también evidencia el circuito superficial de las aguas. Estando, por lo general, dominado por la componente atmosférica (N2, O2 y Ar). Sin embargo, en algunos casos el gas predominante fue el CO2 (con concentraciones que llegan al 63% v/v), aunque los valores isotópicos del carbono (<-17,7 ‰) muestran que lo más probable es que esté relacionado con un origen biológico. Los datos geoquímicos e isotópicos de las aguas superficiales obtenidos en la zona de Hontomín se pueden considerar como el valor de fondo con el que comparar durante la fase operacional, la clausura y posterior a la clausura. En este sentido, la composición de los elementos mayoritarios y traza, la composición isotópica del carbono del CO2 disuelto y del TDIC (Carbono inorgánico disuelto) y algunos elementos traza se pueden considerar como parámetros adecuados para detectar la migración del CO2 a los ambientes superficiales. ABSTRACT Since 2009, a group made up of Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM; Spain) and Università degli Studi Firenze (UniFi; Italy) has been taking part in a joint project called “Strategies for Monitoring CO2 and other Gases in Natural analogues”. The group was coordinated by AMPHOS XXI, a private company established in Barcelona. The Project was financially supported by Fundación Ciudad de la Energía (CIUDEN; Spain) as a part of the EC-funded OXYCFB300 project (European Energy Program for Recovery -EEPR-; www.compostillaproject.eu). The main objectives of the project were aimed to develop and optimize analytical methodologies to be applied at the surface to Monitor and Verify the feasibility of geologically stored carbon dioxide. These techniques were oriented to detect and quantify possible CO2 leakages to the atmosphere. Several investigations were made in natural analogues from Spain and Italy and in the Tecnchnological Development Plant for CO2 injection al Hontomín (Burgos, Spain). The studying techniques were mainly focused on the measurements of diffuse soil gases and surface and shallow waters. The soil-gas measurements included the determination of CO2 flux and the application to natural trace gases (e.g. radon) that may help to detect any CO2 leakage. As far as the water chemistry is concerned, geochemical and isotopic data related to surface and spring waters and dissolved gases in the area of the PDT of Hontomín were analyzed to determine the most suitable parameters to trace the migration of the injected CO2 into the near-surface environments. The accumulation chamber method was used to measure the diffuse emission of CO2 at the soil-atmosphere interface. Although this technique has widely been applied in different scientific areas, it was considered of the utmost importance to adapt the optimum methodology for measuring the CO2 soil flux and estimating the total CO2 output to the specific features of the site where CO2 is to be stored shortly. During the pre-injection phase CO2 fluxes are expected to be relatively low where in the intra- and post-injection phases, if leakages are to be occurring, small variation in CO2 flux might be detected when the CO2 “noise” is overcoming the biological activity of the soil (soil respiration). CO2 flux measurements by the accumulation chamber method could be performed without vegetation clearance or after vegetation clearance. However, the results obtained after clearance show less dispersion and this suggests that this procedure appears to be more suitable for monitoring CO2 Storage sites. The measurement protocol, applied for the determination of the CO2 flux baseline at Hontomín, has included the following steps: a) cleaning and removal of both the vegetal cover and top 2 cm of soil, b) waiting to reduce flux perturbation due to the soil removal and c) measuring the CO2 flux. Once completing the CO2 flux measurements and detected whether there were anomalies zones, the total CO2 output was estimated to quantify the amount of CO2 released to the atmosphere in each of the studied areas. There is a wide range of methodologies for the estimation of the CO2 output, which were applied to understand which one was the most representative. In this study six statistical methods are presented: arithmetic mean, minimum variances unbiased estimator, bootstrap resample, partitioning of data into different populations with a graphical and a maximum likelihood procedures, and sequential Gaussian simulation. Eight campaigns were carried out in the Hontomín CO2 Storage Technology Development Plant and in natural CO2 analogues. The results show that sequential Gaussian simulation is the most accurate method to estimate the total CO2 output and the confidential interval. Nevertheless, a variety of statistic methods were also used. As a consequence, an application procedure for selecting the most realistic method was developed. The first step to estimate the total emanation rate was the variogram analysis. If the relation among the data can be explained with the variogram, the best technique to calculate the total CO2 output and its confidence interval is the sequential Gaussian simulation method (sGs). If the data are independent, their distribution is to be analyzed. For normal and log-normal distribution the proper methods are the arithmetic mean and minimum variances unbiased estimator, respectively. If the data are not normal (log-normal) or are a mixture of different populations the best approach is the bootstrap resampling. According to these steps, the maximum confidence interval was about ±20/25%, with most of values between ±3.5% and ±8%. Partitioning of CO2 flux data into different populations may help to interpret the data as their distribution can be affected by different geochemical processes, e.g. geological or biological sources of CO2. Consequently, it may be an important tool in a monitoring CCS program, where the main goal is to demonstrate that there are not leakages from the reservoir to the atmosphere and, if occurring, to be able to detect and quantify it. Results show that the partitioning of populations is better performed by maximum likelihood criteria, since graphical procedures have a degree of subjectivity in the interpretation and results may not be reproducible. The relationship between CO2 flux and radon isotopes (222Rn and 220Rn) was studied in natural analogues. In all emissions zones, a positive relation between 222Rn and CO2 was observed. However, the relationship between activity of 220Rn and CO2 flux is not clear. In some cases the 220Rn activity indeed increased with the CO2 flux in other measurements a decrease was recognized. We can speculate that this effect was possibly related to the route (deep or shallow) of the radon source. These results may confirm the possible use of the radon isotopes as tracers for the gas origin and their application in the detection of leakages. With respect to the CO2 flux baseline at the TDP of Hontomín, soil flux measurements in the vicinity of oil boreholes, drilled in the eighties and named H-1 to H-4, and injection and monitoring wells were performed using an accumulation chamber. Seven surveys were carried out from November 2009 to summer 2011. More than 4,000 measurements were used to determine the baseline flux of CO2 and its seasonal variations. The measured values were relatively low (from 5 to 13 g•m-2•day-1) and few outliers were identified, mainly located close to the H-2 oil well. Nevertheless, these values cannot be associated to a deep source of CO2, being more likely related to biological processes, i.e. soil respiration. No anomalies were recognized close to the deep fault system (Ubierna Fault) detected by geophysical investigations. There, the CO2 flux is indeed as low as other measurement stations. CO2 fluxes appear to be controlled by the biological activity since the lowest values were recorded during autumn-winter seasons and they tend to increase in warm periods. Two reference CO2 flux values (UCL50 of 5 g•m-2•d-1 for non-ploughed areas in autumn-winter seasons and 3.5 and 12 g•m-2•d-1 for in ploughed and non-ploughed areas, respectively, in spring-summer time, and UCL99 of 26 g•m-2•d-1 for autumn-winter in not-ploughed areas and 34 and 42 g•m-2•d-1 for spring-summer in ploughed and not-ploughed areas, respectively, were calculated. Fluxes higher than these reference values could be indicative of possible leakage during the operational and post-closure stages of the storage project. The first geochemical and isotopic data related to surface and spring waters and dissolved gases in the area of Hontomín–Huermeces (Burgos, Spain) are presented and discussed. The chemical and features of the spring waters suggest that they are related to a shallow hydrogeological system as the concentration of the Total Dissolved Solids approaches 800 mg/L with a Ca2+(Mg2+)-HCO3 − composition, similar to that of the surface waters. Some spring waters are characterized by relatively high concentrations of NO3 − (up to 123 mg/L), unequivocally suggesting an anthropogenic source. Anomalous concentrations of Cl−, SO4 2−, As, B and Ba were measured in two springs, discharging a few hundred meters from the oil wells, and in the Rio Ubierna. These contents are possibly indicative of mixing processes between deep and shallow aquifers. The chemistry of the dissolved gases also evidences the shallow circuits of the Hontomín– Huermeces, mainly characterized by an atmospheric source as highlighted by the contents of N2, O2, Ar and their relative ratios. Nevertheless, significant concentrations (up to 63% by vol.) of isotopically negative CO2 (<−17.7‰ V-PDB) were found in some water samples, likely related to a biogenic source. The geochemical and isotopic data of the surface and spring waters in the surroundings of Hontomín can be considered as background values when intra- and post-injection monitoring programs will be carried out. In this respect, main and minor solutes, the isotopic carbon of dissolved CO2 and TDIC (Total Dissolved Inorganic Carbon) and selected trace elements can be considered as useful parameters to trace the migration of the injected CO2 into near-surface environments.

Morphological Functions to Quantify Three-Dimensional Tomograms of Macropore Structure in a Vineyard Soil with Two Different Management Regimes

Soil tomography and morphological functions built over Minkowski functionals were used to describe the impact on pore structure of two soil management practices in a Mediterranean vineyard. Soil structure controls important physical and biological processes in soil–plant–microbial systems. Those processes are dominated by the geometry of soil pore structure, and a correct model of this geometry is critical for understanding them. Soil tomography has been shown to provide rich three-dimensional digital information on soil pore geometry. Recently, mathematical morphological techniques have been proposed as powerful tools to analyze and quantify the geometrical features of porous media. Minkowski functionals and morphological functions built over Minkowski functionals provide computationally efficient means to measure four fundamental geometrical features of three-dimensional geometrical objects, that is, volume, boundary surface, mean boundary surface curvature, and connectivity. We used the threshold and the dilation and erosion of three-dimensional images to generate morphological functions and explore the evolution of Minkowski functionals as the threshold and as the degree of dilation and erosion changes. We analyzed the three-dimensional geometry of soil pore space with X-ray computed tomography (CT) of intact soil columns from a Spanish Mediterranean vineyard by using two different management practices (conventional tillage versus permanent cover crop of resident vegetation). Our results suggested that morphological functions built over Minkowski functionals provide promising tools to characterize soil macropore structure and that the evolution of morphological features with dilation and erosion is more informative as an indicator of structure than moving threshold for both soil managements studied.

Caracterización de los parámetros de resistencia al corte y erosionabilidad del suelo para su aplicación en los problemas de estabilidad de taludes en obras lineales

La tesis se organiza en un volumen de Memoria integrada por once capítulos que constituyen el cuerpo de la tesis y otro volumen de Apéndices titulado “Caracterización geotécnica de Base de los suelos de España” que reúne en forma de cuadros las características de textura, permeabilidad, humedad-succión, erosionabilidad y resistencia al corte de los cuarenta y dos perfiles de suelos representativos de los tipos del Mapa de suelos De España. Estos cuadros han sido elaborados originalmente por la doctorando durante sus estudios para la obtención del DEA de la Suficiencia Investigadora, excepto los de resistencia al corte que lo han sido también por la doctorando de forma original, pero ya en la etapa de redacción de la tesis. En el Capítulo 1 “Introducción” se describe la motivación, antecedentes, alcance y contenido de la tesis, ordenado según el índice que en él se incluye. Los Capítulos 2 “Meteorización, 3 “Balance Hídrico” y 4 “Humedades características” constituyen el “estado del arte” en el momento actual de los temas de geotecnia ambiental relacionados con la degradación de la superficie terrestre y la estabilidad de taludes. El Capítulo 2, tras matizar algunas generalidades, aporta elementos para la cuantificación de la alteración de rocas como el “índice climático de Weinert” y de la erosión de suelos como la “ecuación universal de pérdida de suelo (U.S.L.E.)” El Capítulo 3, partiendo de los fenómenos de precipitación y evapotranspiración, plantea el balance hídrico en vertientes con instrumentos para evaluar la infiltración y la escorrentía, conceptos imprescindibles para adentrarse en los de resistencia y erosionabilidad del conjunto suelo-agua. En los Apéndices A1 y A2, se recogen valores de coeficientes de infiltración en condiciones saturadas y no saturadas de los perfiles de suelos del Mapa de España. El Capítulo 4 se dedica al estudio de este conjunto suelo-agua con la definición de conceptos que lo caracterizan, basados en la relación entre los contenidos de ambos elementos o “humedad”, sus valores máximos y mínimos y la forma en la que es retenida el agua por el suelo. Este capítulo acaba con el concepto de “Curva característica Suelo-Agua/Soil Water Characteristic curve (SWCC)”, que liga el contenido de agua de un suelo con la tensión a la que está retenida (uauw) “succión” o con su expresión más usual “pF”. En el Apéndice A 3 se adjuntan las SWCC de los perfiles de suelos del Mapa de suelos de España. En el Capítulo 5 “Resistencia al corte de los suelos”, se detalla la influencia que tienen sobre la resistencia de los suelos factores como el paso del tiempo, el contenido de humedad y la presencia y tipo de vegetación en la superficie del suelo estudiado. El Capítulo 6 “Evaluación de la erosión”, analiza el factor de erosionabilidad del suelo “factor K” de la U.S.L.E., su evaluación en función de la textura, estructura y permeabilidad del suelo, con la estimación hecha para los cuarenta y dos perfiles de suelos del Mapa de España, contenida en el Apéndice 4. En el Capítulo 7 “Metodología de diseño” se hacen en su primera parte unas consideraciones geoambientales de diseño aplicables al estudio de los problemas de inestabilidades en taludes. La segunda parte constituye el núcleo de la tesis con la propuesta de “estimación de los parámetros de resistencia al corte del suelo”, consecuente con las teorías y metodología de análisis expuesta en los capítulos anteriores. En el Apéndice A 5 se presentan los valores de los parámetros coulombianos de resistencia al corte, ”c y Ф” estimados según la caracterización climática a partir del índice de Thornthwaite, en condicionesde diseño para humedades naturales máxima y mínima de los cuarenta y dos perfiles de suelos del Mapa de suelos de España. El Capítulo 8 “Aplicación a casos reales” se considera de gran interés al constituir una auténtica continuación de la segunda parte del capítulo anterior, desarrollando la metodología expuesta en él a cuatro problemáticas de infraestructuras de obras lineales, relacionadas con problemas de erosión y deslizamientos en taludes. El Capítulo 9 “Ensayos de referencia” se incluye como punto de apoyo (referencia) a las teorías expuestas, valorando la idoneidad de los tipos de ensayos y tipos de suelos seleccionados (Laboratorio de Geotecnia del CEDEX y Laboratorio Hong-Kong University of Science and Technology), utilizados para la obtención, por correlaciones deducidas, de las curvas SWCC de los perfiles de suelos del Mapa de España, incluídas en el Apéndice A 3, como se ha citado antes. En el Capítulo 10 “Conclusiones y Futuras Líneas de Investigación”se apuntan en primer lugar unas conclusiones que, a juicio de la doctorando, se pueden extraer con interés de esta tesis y a continuación se esbozan unas posibles líneas de investigación, fundamentalmente de tipo experimental, que complementarían los avances derivados de esta tesis o podrían esclarecer y abrir nuevas interpretaciones de los fenómenos naturales de erosión y estabilidad de taludes en los que ésta se ha centrado. Finalmente, en el Capítulo 11 “Bibliografía” se han reunido 328 referencias que reflejan una visión amplia y bastante completa del tema tratado, obtenida complementando las de tesis anteriores sobre esta singular materia (“Efecto estabilizador de la vegetación en taludes”, L Fort 1975 y “Determinación de las características de fricción en el contacto suelo-geotextil a diferentes succiones, mediante equipos de laboratorio singulares”, E Asanza 2009), con propias de la doctorando (9) y las consideradas de mayor interés de los últimos Congresos sobre Suelos no saturados,”Unsat 95”, “Unsat 2002” y “Unsat 2011” entre otros. ABSTRACT The thesis is organized in a volume of Memory composed of eleven chapters that make up the body of the thesis and other Appendices volume entitled "Geotechnical characterization of basis of the soils of Spain" that combines the characteristics of texture, permeability, moisture-suction, erosionability, and shear strength of forty-two profiles of soils representative of the types of the soil of Spain map in the form of pictures. These pictures have been produced originally by the student during their studies to obtain the DEA of the research, except those of the shear strength, also been done by the PhD student in an original way, but already at the stage of drafting of the thesis. Chapter 1 "Introducción" describes the motivation, background, scope and content of the thesis, ordered according to the index that is included. The Chapters: 2 "Weathering, 3 “Water Balance” and 4 “moisture characteristics" are the "State of the art" at the present time of geotechnical environmental issues related to the degradation of the Earth's surface and the slope stability. Chapter 2 after clarify some general information, provides elements for the quantification of the alteration of rocks as "Weinert climate index" and soil erosion as the "universal equation of loss of soil (U.S.L.E.)" Chapter 3, on the basis of the phenomena of precipitation and evapotranspiration, raises the water balance in sheds with instruments to evaluate infiltration and runoff, essential concepts into the resistance and erosionability water-soil joint. Values of soils coefficients of infiltration in saturated and unsaturated conditions from the Spain map of profiles are collected in the Appendices A1 and A2. Chapter 4 is dedicated to the study of this joint “soil-water”, with the definition of concepts that characterize it, based on the relationship between the contents of both elements or “moisture”, their maximum and minimum values and the way in which water is retained by the soil. This chapter ends with the concept of “Soil Water Characteristic curve (SWCC)", which linked the water content of a soil with the stress that it is retained (ua-uw) "suction" or its expression more usual "pF". The SWCC of the profiles of soils of the Spain soils Map are attached in the Appendix 3. In Chapter 5 “Soils shear strength”,is detailed the influence that they have on the resistance of soils factors such as the passage of time, the content of moisture and the presence and type of vegetation on the surface of the studied soil. Chapter 6 "Assessment of erosion", analyses the soil erodibility factor "Kfactor" of the U.S.L.E., its evaluation based on texture, structure and permeability of the soil, with the estimate for forty-two profiles of soils on the Spain Soils Map, contained in Appendix 4. Chapter 7 "Design methodology" some considerations are made in the first part geo-environmental design applicable to the study of the problems of instabilities in slopes. The second part constitutes the core of the thesis with the proposal of “estimation of parameters of shear strength”, of the soils consistent with theories and analytical methodology outlined in the previous chapters. Appendix A 5 presents the values of the coulombians parameters of shear strength, "c and Ф" according to the characterization of climate from the index of Thornthwaite, in design for natural moisture conditions maximum and minimum of forty-two profils of Spain Soils Map Chapter 8 "Application to real cases" is considered of great interest to constitute a true continuation of the second part of the previous chapter, developing the methodology exposed it to four problems of civil-works infrastructure, related to problems of erosion and landslides in slopes. Chapter 9 "Tests of reference" is included as point of support (reference) to the theories exposed, assessing the suitability of the types of tests and types of selected soils (Geotechnical laboratory of CEDEX and laboratory Hongkong University of Science and Technology), used to obtain, by deduced correlations, of curves SWCC of soils profiles on the Spain Soils Map, included in Appendix A. 3, as it was mentioned before. Chapter 10 "Conclusions and future research lines" are running first conclusions which, in the opinion of the candidate, can be extracted with interest of this thesis, and then, it outlines some possible lines of research, mainly experimental, which would complement the advances arising from this thesis or could clarify and open new interpretations of natural phenomena of erosion and slope stability in which it has focused. Finally, in Chapter 11 "Bibliography" 328 references have been included which reflect a broad and fairly comprehensive view of the subject matter, obtained complementing those of the previous theses on this singular issue ("Vegetation stabilizing effect on slopes", L Fort 1975, and "Determination of the characteristics of friction in the contact soil-geotextile to different-suctions, through special laboratory equipment", E Asanza 2009) with some of them from of the candidate (9) and the others from of the considered as the most interesting of recent conferences on unsaturated soils, "Unsat 95", "Unsat2002" and "Unsat 2011" among others.

Discriminating Crop, Weeds and Soil Surface with a Terrestrial LIDAR Sensor

In this study, the evaluation of the accuracy and performance of a light detection and ranging (LIDAR) sensor for vegetation using distance and reflection measurements aiming to detect and discriminate maize plants and weeds from soil surface was done. The study continues a previous work carried out in a maize field in Spain with a LIDAR sensor using exclusively one index, the height profile. The current system uses a combination of the two mentioned indexes. The experiment was carried out in a maize field at growth stage 12–14, at 16 different locations selected to represent the widest possible density of three weeds: Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv., Lamium purpureum L., Galium aparine L.and Veronica persica Poir.. A terrestrial LIDAR sensor was mounted on a tripod pointing to the inter-row area, with its horizontal axis and the field of view pointing vertically downwards to the ground, scanning a vertical plane with the potential presence of vegetation. Immediately after the LIDAR data acquisition (distances and reflection measurements), actual heights of plants were estimated using an appropriate methodology. For that purpose, digital images were taken of each sampled area. Data showed a high correlation between LIDAR measured height and actual plant heights (R 2 = 0.75). Binary logistic regression between weed presence/absence and the sensor readings (LIDAR height and reflection values) was used to validate the accuracy of the sensor. This permitted the discrimination of vegetation from the ground with an accuracy of up to 95%. In addition, a Canonical Discrimination Analysis (CDA) was able to discriminate mostly between soil and vegetation and, to a far lesser extent, between crop and weeds. The studied methodology arises as a good system for weed detection, which in combination with other principles, such as vision-based technologies, could improve the efficiency and accuracy of herbicide spraying.

Implementation of the Heated Pulsed Theory using actively heated fiber optics: measurements of soil volumetric water content and soil volumetric heat capacity

Existe una creciente necesidad de hacer el mejor uso del agua para regadío. Una alternativa eficiente consiste en la monitorización del contenido volumétrico de agua (θ), utilizando sensores de humedad. A pesar de existir una gran diversidad de sensores y tecnologías disponibles, actualmente ninguna de ellas permite obtener medidas distribuidas en perfiles verticales de un metro y en escalas laterales de 0.1-1,000 m. En este sentido, es necesario buscar tecnologías alternativas que sirvan de puente entre las medidas puntuales y las escalas intermedias. Esta tesis doctoral se basa en el uso de Fibra Óptica (FO) con sistema de medida de temperatura distribuida (DTS), una tecnología alternativa de reciente creación que ha levantado gran expectación en las últimas dos décadas. Específicamente utilizamos el método de fibra calentada, en inglés Actively Heated Fiber Optic (AHFO), en la cual los cables de Fibra Óptica se utilizan como sondas de calor mediante la aplicación de corriente eléctrica a través de la camisa de acero inoxidable, o de un conductor eléctrico simétricamente posicionado, envuelto, alrededor del haz de fibra óptica. El uso de fibra calentada se basa en la utilización de la teoría de los pulsos de calor, en inglés Heated Pulsed Theory (HPP), por la cual el conductor se aproxima a una fuente de calor lineal e infinitesimal que introduce calor en el suelo. Mediante el análisis del tiempo de ocurrencia y magnitud de la respuesta térmica ante un pulso de calor, es posible estimar algunas propiedades específicas del suelo, tales como el contenido de humedad, calor específico (C) y conductividad térmica. Estos parámetros pueden ser estimados utilizando un sensor de temperatura adyacente a la sonda de calor [método simple, en inglés single heated pulsed probes (SHPP)], ó a una distancia radial r [método doble, en inglés dual heated pulsed probes (DHPP)]. Esta tesis doctoral pretende probar la idoneidad de los sistemas de fibra óptica calentada para la aplicación de la teoría clásica de sondas calentadas. Para ello, se desarrollarán dos sistemas FO-DTS. El primero se sitúa en un campo agrícola de La Nava de Arévalo (Ávila, España), en el cual se aplica la teoría SHPP para estimar θ. El segundo sistema se desarrolla en laboratorio y emplea la teoría DHPP para medir tanto θ como C. La teoría SHPP puede ser implementada con fibra óptica calentada para obtener medidas distribuidas de θ, mediante la utilización de sistemas FO-DTS y el uso de curvas de calibración específicas para cada suelo. Sin embargo, la mayoría de aplicaciones AHFO se han desarrollado exclusivamente en laboratorio utilizando medios porosos homogéneos. En esta tesis se utiliza el programa Hydrus 2D/3D para definir tales curvas de calibración. El modelo propuesto es validado en un segmento de cable enterrado en una instalación de fibra óptica y es capaz de predecir la respuesta térmica del suelo en puntos concretos de la instalación una vez que las propiedades físicas y térmicas de éste son definidas. La exactitud de la metodología para predecir θ frente a medidas puntuales tomadas con sensores de humedad comerciales fue de 0.001 a 0.022 m3 m-3 La implementación de la teoría DHPP con AHFO para medir C y θ suponen una oportunidad sin precedentes para aplicaciones medioambientales. En esta tesis se emplean diferentes combinaciones de cables y fuentes emisoras de calor, que se colocan en paralelo y utilizan un rango variado de espaciamientos, todo ello en el laboratorio. La amplitud de la señal y el tiempo de llegada se han observado como funciones del calor específico del suelo. Medidas de C, utilizando esta metodología y ante un rango variado de contenidos de humedad, sugirieron la idoneidad del método, aunque también se observaron importantes errores en contenidos bajos de humedad de hasta un 22%. La mejora del método requerirá otros modelos más precisos que tengan en cuenta el diámetro del cable, así como la posible influencia térmica del mismo. ABSTRACT There is an increasing need to make the most efficient use of water for irrigation. A good approach to make irrigation as efficient as possible is to monitor soil water content (θ) using soil moisture sensors. Although, there is a broad range of different sensors and technologies, currently, none of them can practically and accurately provide vertical and lateral moisture profiles spanning 0-1 m depth and 0.1-1,000 m lateral scales. In this regard, further research to fulfill the intermediate scale and to bridge single-point measurement with the broaden scales is still needed. This dissertation is based on the use of Fiber Optics with Distributed Temperature Sensing (FO-DTS), a novel approach which has been receiving growing interest in the last two decades. Specifically, we employ the so called Actively Heated Fiber Optic (AHFO) method, in which FO cables are employed as heat probe conductors by applying electricity to the stainless steel armoring jacket or an added conductor symmetrically positioned (wrapped) about the FO cable. AHFO is based on the classic Heated Pulsed Theory (HPP) which usually employs a heat probe conductor that approximates to an infinite line heat source which injects heat into the soil. Observation of the timing and magnitude of the thermal response to the energy input provide enough information to derive certain specific soil thermal characteristics such as the soil heat capacity, soil thermal conductivity or soil water content. These parameters can be estimated by capturing the soil thermal response (using a thermal sensor) adjacent to the heat source (the heating and the thermal sources are mounted together in the so called single heated pulsed probe (SHPP)), or separated at a certain distance, r (dual heated pulsed method (DHPP) This dissertation aims to test the feasibility of heated fiber optics to implement the HPP theory. Specifically, we focus on measuring soil water content (θ) and soil heat capacity (C) by employing two types of FO-DTS systems. The first one is located in an agricultural field in La Nava de Arévalo (Ávila, Spain) and employ the SHPP theory to estimate θ. The second one is developed in the laboratory using the procedures described in the DHPP theory, and focuses on estimating both C and θ. The SHPP theory can be implemented with actively heated fiber optics (AHFO) to obtain distributed measurements of soil water content (θ) by using reported soil thermal responses in Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) and with a soil-specific calibration relationship. However, most reported AHFO applications have been calibrated under laboratory homogeneous soil conditions, while inexpensive efficient calibration procedures useful in heterogeneous soils are lacking. In this PhD thesis, we employ the Hydrus 2D/3D code to define these soil-specific calibration curves. The model is then validated at a selected FO transect of the DTS installation. The model was able to predict the soil thermal response at specific locations of the fiber optic cable once the surrounding soil hydraulic and thermal properties were known. Results using electromagnetic moisture sensors at the same specific locations demonstrate the feasibility of the model to detect θ within an accuracy of 0.001 to 0.022 m3 m-3. Implementation of the Dual Heated Pulsed Probe (DPHP) theory for measurement of volumetric heat capacity (C) and water content (θ) with Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) heated fiber optic (FO) systems presents an unprecedented opportunity for environmental monitoring. We test the method using different combinations of FO cables and heat sources at a range of spacings in a laboratory setting. The amplitude and phase-shift in the heat signal with distance was found to be a function of the soil volumetric heat capacity (referred, here, to as Cs). Estimations of Cs at a range of θ suggest feasibility via responsiveness to the changes in θ (we observed a linear relationship in all FO combinations), though observed bias with decreasing soil water contents (up to 22%) was also reported. Optimization will require further models to account for the finite radius and thermal influence of the FO cables, employed here as “needle probes”. Also, consideration of the range of soil conditions and cable spacing and jacket configurations, suggested here to be valuable subjects of further study and development.

Parallel sets and morphological measurements of CT images of soil pore structure in a vineyard

Important physical and biological processes in soil-plant-microbial systems are dominated by the geometry of soil pore space, and a correct model of this geometry is critical for understanding them. We analyze the geometry of soil pore space with the X-ray computed tomography (CT) of intact soil columns. We present here some preliminary results of our investigation on Minkowski functionals of parallel sets to characterize soil structure. We also show how the evolution of Minkowski morphological measurements of parallel sets may help to characterize the influence of conventional tillage and permanent cover crop of resident vegetation on soil structure in a Spanish Mediterranean vineyard.

Effects of soil management in vineyard on soil physical and chemical characteristics

Cover crops in Mediterranean vineyards are scarcely used due to water competition between the cover crop and the grapevine; however, bare soil management through tillage or herbicides tends to have negative effects on the soil over time (organic matter decrease, soil structure and soil fertility degradation, compaction, etc). The objective of this study was to understand how soil management affects soil fertility, compaction and infiltration over time. To this end, two bare soil techniques were compared, tillage (TT) and total herbicide (HT) with two cover crops; annual cereal (CT) and annual grass (AGT), established for 8 years. CT treatment showed the highest organic matter content, having the biggest amount of biomass incorporated into the soil. The annual adventitious vegetation in TT treatment (568 kg dry matter ha-1) that was incorporated into the soil, kept the organic matter content higher than HT levels and close to AGT level, in spite of the greater aboveground annual biomass production of this treatment (3632 kg dry matter ha-1) whereas only its roots were incorporated into the soil. TT presented the highest bulk density under the tractor track lines and a greatest resistance to penetration (at 0.2 m depth). AGT presented bulk density values (upper 0.4 m) lower than TT and penetration resistance in CT lower (at 0.20 m depth) than TT too. Effects of soil management in vineyard on soil physical and chemical characteristics - ResearchGate. Available from: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/268520480_Effects_of_soil_management_in_vineyard_on_soil_physical_and_chemical_characteristics [accessed May 20, 2015].