Evolution not revolution of farming systemswill best feed and green the world

The challenge to properly feed a world population of 9.2 billion by 2050, that must be achieved on essentially currently cropped area, requires that food production be increased by 70%. This large increase can only be achieved by combinations of greater crop yields and more intensive cropping adapted to local conditions and availability of inputs. Farming systems are dynamic and continuously adapt to changing ecological, environmental and social conditions, while achieving greater production and resource-use efficiency by application of science and technology. This article argues that the solution to feed and green the world in 2050 is to support this evolution more strongly by providing farmers with necessary information, inputs, and recognition. There is no revolutionary alternative. Proposals to transform agriculture to low-input and organic systems would, because of low productiv- ity, exacerbate the challenge if applied in small part, and ensure failure if applied more widely. The challenge is, however, great. Irrigation, necessary to increase cropping intensity in many areas cannot be extended much more widely than at present, and it is uncertain if the current rate of crop yield increase can be maintained. Society needs greater recognition of the food-supply problem and must increase funding and support for agricultural research while it attends to issues of food waste and over consumption that can make valuable reductions to food demand from agriculture

Cadena de valor de papas nativas (Solanum andigenum sp.) en la provincia de Jauja, Per��

La Asamblea General de la ONU, a solicitud del gobierno peruano, declara en el a��o 2008 el A��o Internacional de la Papa, (AIP). Desde el a��o 2005, el gobierno peruano ha puesto en marcha estrategias en torno a la importancia de la papa, como la declaraci��n del 30 de Mayo como el D��a Nacional de la Papa. El a��o 2014 es declarado por la FAO, (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), A��o Internacional de la Agricultura Familiar, con un enfoque compartido por esta Tesis Doctoral en el apoyo a la familia campesina peruana. El gobierno peruano utiliza las cadenas de valor como una estrategia de promoci��n de desarrollo sostenible, que ha permitido contribuir a la inclusi��n social y econ��mica de productores pobres de zonas alto andinas, como las localizadas en la mancomunidad municipal del Yacus, (MMY), provincia de Jauja, departamento de Jun��n. Esta estrategia, en la que el mercado incorpora a los peque��os agricultores de las zonas altas de los Andes, (que disponen de recursos econ��micos muy bajos), en procesos productivos rentables, implica una serie de cambios a realizar, como la transformaci��n de los patrones de producci��n tradicional hacia aquellos productos o servicios que tienen demanda en el mercado, o la variaci��n de la mentalidad del agricultor peque��o hacia una concepci��n empresarial de su producci��n. (Fabi��n, 2013). Por otra parte, la sostenibilidad de las cadenas de valor depende del eslab��n m��s d��bil, lo que obliga a conocer la situaci��n de todos los eslabones para poder integrar y reforzar la cadena. Se requiere un sistema de transparencia adecuado que facilite el flujo de la informaci��n entre los distintos eslabones. (Briz et al., 2012). Adem��s, el establecimiento de la cadena de valor debe hacerse con cuidado, ya que la eficacia y supervivencia de las empresas est��n cada vez m��s ligadas a la cadena de valor a la que pertenece y a la coordinaci��n de la misma. (Briz, 2011). En esta situaci��n, adquiere importancia el estudio de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa, para una vez establecidas sus caracter��sticas, poder determinar la viabilidad o no de una cadena de valor de este producto que repercuta parte de la riqueza generada en los peque��os agricultores alto andinos, e incluso, de su extensi��n hasta Espa��a. Existen estudios sobre las papas nativas, realizadas por diferentes universidades de distintos pa��ses, e incluso, de diferentes continentes. Sin embargo, la mayor��a de los estudios se centran en la mejora de la producci��n de la papa nativa. La novedad de la investigaci��n realizada en la presente Tesis Doctoral radica en el estudio de la viabilidad de la comercializaci��n de la papa nativa, mediante el establecimiento de una cadena de valor que se inicie en la provincia de Jauja, Per��, y finalice tanto en los mercados peruanos de las regiones de Jun��n y Lima, como en Espa��a. El objetivo planteado en esta investigaci��n es la mejora de las condiciones econ��micas y sociales de las comunidades agr��colas de la provincia de Jauja en el Per��, as�� como fomentar su desarrollo tecnol��gico e industrial, mediante el fomento de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa y sus derivados. Se establecen como objetivos espec��ficos la caracterizaci��n de los eslabones de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa y sus derivados en la provincia de Jauja del Per�� y en Espa��a, de manera que se determine el valor agregado en los mismos; el fortalecimiento de las organizaciones de productores de papas nativas para la comercializaci��n de sus producciones y para el fomento de la cultura empresarial; y el desarrollo de una cadena de comercializaci��n papas nativas y sus derivados con origen en la Provincia de Jauja, Per��, y que finalice en Espa��a, con la venta al consumidor espa��ol. Para alcanzar estos objetivos la metodolog��a utilizada es la cadena de valor agroalimentaria, utilizando como herramientas de an��lisis el an��lisis DAFO de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa. Las fuentes de informaci��n primarias utilizadas proceden en parte del proyecto de cooperaci��n de UPM, ���Mejora de la cadena de valor de la patata andina como impulso al desarrollo rural. Caso de tres Comunidades Campesinas en la Provincia de Jauja del Per�����, en el que particip�� el doctorando, y en parte proceden de la bater��a de encuestas espec��ficamente dise��adas para los diferentes eslabones de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa. Las fuentes de informaci��n secundarias proceden de art��culos acad��micos publicados, de art��culos publicados por revistas especializadas del sector y de informes realizados por diferentes instituciones gubernamentales, tanto espa��olas como peruanas. Las conclusiones de la investigaci��n son las siguientes. La creaci��n de la mancomunidad del Yacus ha beneficiado a los peque��os agricultores. Estos consiguen mejores condiciones de venta y mejores precios para sus productos, lo que repercute en la mejora de sus condiciones de vida. Estas mejoras en las condiciones de venta de los productos se deben a su pertenencia a una cadena de valor de papa nativa que est�� funcionando de forma eficaz. Las empresas consideradas para constituir la cadena de valor han mostrado inter��s por formar parte de ella: los campesinos para obtener mejores precios por sus productos y unas mejores condiciones de venta; los distribuidores para asegurarse una calidad determinada de unas variedades fijas de papa nativa; la industria transformadora por disponer de un suministro de producto adecuado al derivado de papa nativa correspondiente, (hojuelas, tunta, etc.); las empresas exportadoras para tener suministro garantizado de los productos que ellos requieren en los vol��menes adecuados. Es una situaci��n ventajosa para todas las empresas participantes. A pesar de trabajar con un producto tradicional, la cadena de valor de la papa nativa presenta innovaci��n en los productos comercializados, tanto en la papa nativa fresca como en sus derivados, en los formatos de los productos, en la red de distribuci��n, en las instituciones peruanas y en el consumidor final. Se percibe una demanda de papa nativa y de sus productos derivados en aquellos pa��ses donde existen comunidades de latinoamericanos que han emigrado de sus pa��ses de origen. Espa��a est�� entre los pa��ses que han acogido a un importante n��mero de personas de origen latinoamericano. A pesar de la fuerte crisis econ��mica sufrida por Espa��a, que ha llevado consigo la vuelta a sus pa��ses de origen de parte de su comunidad latinoamericana, el tama��o de esta poblaci��n sigue siendo importante. Esta poblaci��n demanda productos originarios de sus propios pa��ses, y los consumir��an de forma frecuente si los precios son adecuados a su capacidad de consumo. El precio de venta de la papa nativa y sus derivados en Espa��a es de gran importancia. La importaci��n de estos productos desde Per�� hace que este eleve a niveles que le resta competitividad, en especial en la papa fresca. Se aconseja la b��squeda de empresas que puedan adaptar la producci��n de la papa fresca de forma local, y mantener para los derivados la exportaci��n directa a Espa��a. Las preferencias de los consumidores peruanos y espa��oles en cuanto a formatos y marcas se refieren no son coincidentes. De las encuestas realizadas, se concluye que no puede seguirse la misma estrategia de marketing en ambos pa��ses, debi��ndose diferenciar los formatos de los paquetes de la papa nativa y de sus derivados en Espa��a y en Per��, para as�� lograr llegar a los consumidores potenciales de ambos pa��ses. ABSTRACT At the request of the Peruvian government, the UN General Assembly declared the International Year of the Potato in 2008. Since 2005, the Peruvian government has implemented strategies around the importance of the potato, as the declaration of the 30th of May as the National Day of the Potato. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) has declared 2014 as the International Year of Family Farming, with an approach shared by this Ph.D. dissertation about the Peruvian peasant family. The Peruvian government uses value chains as a strategy to promote sustainable development, which has allowed to contribute to the social and economic inclusion of poor farmers in the high Andean regions as those located in the municipal commonwealth of Yacus (MMY) province of Jauja, department of Jun��n. This strategy, which incorporates small farmers in the high Andean regions, (who have very low income), to the market with profitable production processes, implies a number of changes that should take place, such as changing patterns of traditional production to those products or services that are in demand in the market, or changes in the mentality of the small farmer into a concept of production business. (Fabi��n, 2013). Moreover, the sustainability of value chains depends on the weakest link, which demands a knowledge of the status of all the links, in order to integrate and strengthen the chain. It is required an adequate transparency to facilitate the flow of information between the various actors. (Briz et al., 2012). Furthermore, the establishment of the value chain should be done carefully, since the effectiveness and the survival of the businesses are increasingly linked to the value chain where the firm is included and to its coordination. (Briz, 2011). In this situation, it becomes important to study the value chain of the native potato, once we establish its features, to be able to determine the feasibility or not of a value chain of this product, which has an impact of the generated wealth in small farms of the high Andean regions, and even the extension of this value chain to Spain. There are studies on native potatoes, made by different universities in several countries and even in more than one continent. However, most studies focus on improving the production of native potato. The originality of the research conducted in this Ph.D. dissertation is the study of the feasibility of commercialization of native potato, by the creation of a value chain that starts in the province of Jauja, Per��, and ends both in Peruvian markets in the region of Lima, and in Spain. The main goal of this research is to improve the economic and social conditions of farming communities in the province of Jauja in Per��, while promoting its technological and industrial development, by the establishment of a value chain of the native potato and derivatives. The specific objectives of the research are the characterization of the links in the value chain of the native potato and its derivatives in the province of Jauja, (Per��) and in Spain, in order to determine the added value; the strengthening of organizations of native potato producers, to commercialize their products and the promotion of enterprise culture; and the development of a chain to market native potato and its derivatives, with its origin in the province of Jauja, (Per��), and its end in Spain, with the sale to the Spanish consumer. In order to achieve these objectives, the used methodology is the agrifood value chain, using as a tool to analysis it the SWOT analysis of the value chain of the native potato. The primary sources of information used in the research come partly from UPM cooperation project, "Improving the value chain of Andean potato as a boost to rural development. Case Three Rural Communities in the Province of Jauja, (Per��)", in which the Ph.D. student was involved, and partly from the surveys, which were specifically designed for the different links of the value chain of the native potato. The secondary sources of information come from academic articles, from articles published by magazines of the industry, and from reports of several government institutions, both Spanish and Peruvian. The conclusions of the research are as follows. The creation of the commonwealth of Yacus has benefited small farmers. They get better sales conditions and better prices for their products, which results in the improvement of their living conditions. These improvements are due to a value chain of native potato which is working effectively. All the firms invited to constitute the value chain have shown interest in being part of it: the farmers to get better prices for their products and better sale conditions; the distributors to ensure a certain quality of fixed varieties of native potato, the processing industry in order to have an adequate supply of product to the corresponding derivative of native potato (chips, ���tunta���, etc.); exporting firms to have a guaranteed supply of the products that they require with the right volumes. It's a win-win situation for all participating companies. Despite being a traditional product, the value chain of the native potato presents innovation in marketed products, (both fresh native potato and its derivatives), in the formats of products, in the distribution network, in Peruvian institutions and in relation with the consumer. There is a perceived demand of native potato and its products in countries where communities of Latin Americans have settled down. Spain is among the countries that have received a significant number of people from Latin America. Despite the strong economic crisis suffered by Spain, which has lead to a return to their home countries of part of the Latin American community, the size of this population is still considerable. This population demands products from their own countries, and they frequently consume them if the prices are suitable to their standard of living. The selling price of the native potato and its derivatives in Spain is of great importance. The import of these products from Per�� makes the prices rise to levels that reduce competitiveness, especially in fresh native potatoes. It is advised to look for companies which can adapt the fresh potato production in our country, and keep direct export to Spain for the derivatives products. The preferences of Peruvian and Spanish consumers in terms of formats and brands are not the same. The surveys concluded that the same marketing strategy cannot be followed in both countries. Packet formats of native potato and its derivatives should be differentiated in Spain and Per��, in order to reach the potential consumers of both countries.

La telefon��a m��vil : el impacto social

El objetivo de este proyecto ha sido el de realizar un an��lisis del importante desarrollo que han sufrido las telecomunicaciones, haciendo un especial hincapi�� en la telefon��a m��vil y el impacto y repercusi��n que ha causado actualmente en nuestra sociedad. Para ello se har�� un repaso evolutivo de las tecnolog��as de la informaci��n y las telecomunicaciones, y se establecer�� una relaci��n entre la gran difusi��n de ��stas y su efecto sobre los usos, y cambios percibidos por los consumidores del nuevo siglo. Ciertamente la historia de la tecnolog��a, nos ense��a que la gente y las organizaciones acaban utiliz��ndola para unos prop��sitos muy diferentes de aquellos que inicialmente fueron concebidas. Adem��s cuanto m��s interactiva sea una tecnolog��a, tanto m��s probable ser�� que los usuarios se conviertan en productores o modificadores de la misma. Por tanto, la sociedad necesita resolver las inc��gnitas que pueda suscitar el r��pido y contin��o cambio de las comunicaciones. Este proyecto trata de ayudar a responder alguna de las cuestiones que actualmente se est��n planteando. ��Son los tel��fonos m��viles una expresi��n de identidad, artilugios de moda, herramientas de la vida cotidiana, o todo lo anterior? ��Existen nuevos modelos de comportamiento y conducta social? ��La comunicaci��n m��vil est�� favoreciendo la aparici��n de una nueva cultura joven con un lenguaje propio basado en la comunicaci��n textual y multimodal? ��Tienen los tel��fonos m��viles efectos nocivos en la salud? La respuesta a estas preguntas afecta a nuestras vidas y tambi��n condiciona las pol��ticas p��blicas y las estrategias de negocio, por eso requiere adquirir un conocimiento cimentado en la informaci��n, y la recopilaci��n de datos de diversas fuentes, tanto de estad��sticas provenientes de diferentes estudios e investigaciones, como de empresas consultoras, siempre basada en una perspectiva global. En conjunto, se espera dentro de los l��mites del conocimiento actual, contribuir a establecer las bases para el an��lisis y valoraci��n de la relaci��n existente entre comunicaci��n, tecnolog��a y sociedad en todo el mundo. Abstract The purpose of this project has been to analyse the significant development undergone by telecommunications, putting a special emphasis on mobile phones and the impact it has caused in society. We will go over the evolution of IT technologies and telecommunications as well as establish a relationship between its spread and effect of its uses and changes understood by the new century consumers. Technology history shows us that people and organizations use it for very different purposes from those originally thought. Furthermore, the more interactive technologies are, the more users will modify or produce it. Therefore, society needs to solve the mysteries of the quick and continuous change of communications. This project tries to help and answer some of the questions considered these days. Are mobile phones an expression of identity, fashionable devices, tools for everyday life or all at once? Are there any new models of performance and social behaviour? Is mobile communication favouring the existence of a new young culture with a typical language based on textual and multimodal communication? Are mobile phones bad for our health? The answer to these questions affects us all and conditions public politics and business strategies so it is required to get firm knowledge based on information. It is also important to compile data from various sources, from statistics of research and studies, based on a global perspective. As a whole, we hope to contribute to establish the bases for the future analysis and assessment of a fundamental trend that is redefining the relationship between communication, technology and society worldwide by transforming the wireless networks that make our lives.

Sewage sludge gasification. Dolomite performance under different operating conditions

Gasification is a technology that can replace traditional management alternatives used up to date to deal with this waste (landfilling, composting and incineration) and which fulfils the social, environmental and legislative requirements. The main products of sewage sludge gasification are permanent gases (useful to generate energy or to be used as raw material in chemical synthesis processes), liquids (tars) and char. One of the main problems to be solved in gasification is tar production. Tars are organic impurities which can condense at relatively high temperatures making impossible to use the produced gases for most applications. This work deals with the effect of some primary tar removal processes (performed inside the gasifier) on sewage sludge gasification products. For this purpose, analysis of the gas composition, tar production, cold gas efficiency and carbon conversion were carried out. The tests were performed with air in a laboratory scale plant consisting mainly of a bubbling bed gasifier. No catalyzed and catalyzed (10% wt of dolomite in the bed and in the feeding) tests were carried out at different temperatures (750��C, 800��C and 850��C) in order to know the effect of these parameters in the gasification products. As far as tars were concerned, qualitative and quantitative tar composition was determined. In all tests the Equivalence Ratio (ER) was kept at 0.3. Temperature is one of the most influential variables in sewage sludge gasification. Higher temperatures favoured hydrogen and CO production while CO2 content decreased, which might be partially explained by the effect of the cracking, Boudouard and CO2 reforming reactions. At 850��C, cold gas efficiency and carbon conversion reached 49% and 76%, respectively. The presence of dolomite as catalyst increased the production of H2 reaching contents of 15.5% by volume at 850 ��C. Similar behaviour was found for CO whereas CO2 and CnHm (light hydrocarbons) production decreased. In the presence of dolomite, a tar reduction of up to 51% was reached in comparison with no catalyzed tests, as well as improvements on cold gas efficiency and carbon conversion. Several assays were developed in order to test catalyst performance under more rough gasification conditions. For this purpose, the throughput value (TR), defined as kg sludge ���as received��� fed to the gasifier per hour and per m2 of cross sectional area of the gasifier, was modified. Specifically, the TR values used were 110 (reference value), 215 and 322 kg/h��m2. When TR increased, the H2, CO and CH4 production decreased while the CO2 and the CnHm production increased. Tar production increased drastically with TR during no catalysed tests what is related to the lower residence time of the gas inside the reactor. Nevertheless, even at TR=322 kg/h��m2, tar production decreased by nearly 50% with in-bed use of dolomite in comparison with no catalyzed assays under the same operating conditions. Regarding relative tar composition, there was an increase in benzene and naphthalene content when temperature increased while the content of the rest of compounds decreased. The dolomite seemed to be effective all over the range of molecular weight studied showing tar removal efficiencies between 35-55% in most cases. High values of the TR caused a significant increase in tar production but a slight effect on tar composition.

Flexibilidad Polivalencia: modelos de libertad para la vivienda social en Espa��a

Este trabajo estudia la validez de la flexibilidad y la polivalencia, en tanto que estrategias de dise��o dom��stico, para superar los problemas derivados de la coincidencia de dos circunstancias opuestas en el campo de la vivienda social. Por un lado, la existencia en Espa��a de un r��gido conjunto de normativas de dise��o, originado a mediados del siglo pasado bajo unos supuestos culturales e ideol��gicos distintos a los actuales, que fija una idea muy precisa de hogar. Por otro lado, la creciente variedad de modos de habitar derivada del progreso social, econ��mico y tecnol��gico de las ��ltimas d��cadas. La tesis presenta dos partes ligadas entre s��. La primera es una investigaci��n bibliogr��fica en la que se analizan los diferentes conceptos asociados a la flexibilidad y la polivalencia manejados hasta hoy, se estudian las formas en las que estas estrategias se presentan a trav��s de ejemplos, algunos de ellos muy poco conocidos, y se exponen las oportunidades y los obst��culos para su desarrollo en nuestro pa��s. La segunda parte es una investigaci��n experimental que incluye los estudios de evaluaci��n de dos edificios madrile��os de referencia, las viviendas flexibles de Aranguren y Gallegos en Carabanchel y las viviendas polivalentes de la Casa de las Flores, de Secundino Zuazo. En ellos se analizan las ventajas y desventajas de los distintos dispositivos flexibles y polivalentes existentes en dichas viviendas; c��mo influyen en la organizaci��n de la vida dom��stica; cu��les de sus caracter��sticas merecen ser implementadas en nuevos proyectos y bajo qu�� condiciones. La investigaci��n revela que la flexibilidad ofrece ventajas funcionales objetivas, pero que su generalizaci��n en nuevas promociones de vivienda ocasionar��a problemas de ��ndole cultural. Por otro lado, la polivalencia es eficaz para dar cabida a nuevos modelos de convivencia, pero choca con las preferencias de los grupos familiares tradicionales. En ambos casos, se proponen soluciones para mejorar su eficacia. ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to assess the validity of flexibility and polyvalence as architectural responses to address some of the issues derived from two concurrent ���yet opposing��� circumstances in the field of Spanish social housing. On the one hand, the existence of a thick set of rules that strictly defines the form and use of the domestic space. These design norms were originated in the mid-20th century, according to an institutionalised idea of nuclear family and family home that does not match the current social trends in the country. On the other hand, the growing variety of lifestyles and family groups derived from the social, economic and technological progress of the last decades. The thesis is divided into two interrelated parts: The first one is a bibliographic research and an analysis of the diverse concepts attached to flexibility and polyvalence existing in the literature, a study of the ways in which these strategies are practiced in relevant housing buildings, and an explanation of the benefits and difficulties they pose with respect to their development in Spain. The second part is an experimental research including two post-occupancy evaluations in two housing buildings in Madrid: the flexible apartments in Carabanchel by Aranguren & Gallegos, and the polyvalent apartments in la Casa de las Flores by Secundino Zuazo. These studies are aimed at determining the extent to which the flexible and polyvalent elements in these projects are successful, which users take advantage of them and, over all, which of these features deserve to be applied to future developments, and under which conditions. The research indicates that, despite offering objective functional advantages, flexibility cannot be proposed as a general strategy in future subsidised housing developments due to the cultural problems it provokes. Besides, polyvalence is useful to host new cohabitations models, but it clashes with the preferences of traditional family groups. In both cases, several solutions to improve their efficiency are presented.