Hidrodinamica de planeadores submarinos y su impacto en la funcionalidad de sensores CTD

Los recientes desarrollos tecnológicos permiten la transición de la oceanografía observacional desde un concepto basado en buques a uno basado en sistemas autónomos en red. Este último, propone que la forma más eficiente y efectiva de observar el océano es con una red de plataformas autónomas distribuidas espacialmente y complementadas con sistemas de medición remota. Debido a su maniobrabilidad y autonomía, los planeadores submarinos están jugando un papel relevante en este concepto de observaciones en red. Los planeadores submarinos fueron específicamente diseñados para muestrear vastas zonas del océano. Estos son robots con forma de torpedo que hacen uso de su forma hidrodinámica, alas y cambios de flotabilidad para generar movimientos horizontales y verticales en la columna de agua. Un sensor que mide conductividad, temperatura y profundidad (CTD) constituye un equipamiento estándar en la plataforma. Esto se debe a que ciertas variables dinámicas del Océano se pueden derivar de la temperatura, profundidad y salinidad. Esta última se puede estimar a partir de las medidas de temperatura y conductividad. La integración de sensores CTD en planeadores submarinos no esta exenta de desafíos. Uno de ellos está relacionado con la precisión de los valores de salinidad derivados de las muestras de temperatura y conductividad. Específicamente, las estimaciones de salinidad están significativamente degradadas por el retardo térmico existente, entre la temperatura medida y la temperatura real dentro de la celda de conductividad del sensor. Esta deficiencia depende de las particularidades del flujo de entrada al sensor, su geometría y, también se ha postulado, del calor acumulado en las capas de aislamiento externo del sensor. Los efectos del retardo térmico se suelen mitigar mediante el control del flujo de entrada al sensor. Esto se obtiene generalmente mediante el bombeo de agua a través del sensor o manteniendo constante y conocida su velocidad. Aunque recientemente se han incorporado sistemas de bombeo en los CTDs a bordo de los planeadores submarinos, todavía existen plataformas equipadas con CTDs sin dichos sistemas. En estos casos, la estimación de la salinidad supone condiciones de flujo de entrada al sensor, razonablemente controladas e imperturbadas. Esta Tesis investiga el impacto, si existe, que la hidrodinámica de los planeadores submarinos pudiera tener en la eficiencia de los sensores CTD. Específicamente, se investiga primero la localización del sensor CTD (externo al fuselaje) relativa a la capa límite desarrollada a lo largo del cuerpo del planeador. Esto se lleva a cabo mediante la utilización de un modelo acoplado de fluido no viscoso con un modelo de capa límite implementado por el autor, así como mediante un programa comercial de dinámica de fluidos computacional (CFD). Los resultados indican, en ambos casos, que el sensor CTD se encuentra fuera de la capa límite, siendo las condiciones del flujo de entrada las mismas que las del flujo sin perturbar. Todavía, la velocidad del flujo de entrada al sensor CTD es la velocidad de la plataforma, la cual depende de su hidrodinámica. Por tal motivo, la investigación se ha extendido para averiguar el efecto que la velocidad de la plataforma tiene en la eficiencia del sensor CTD. Con este propósito, se ha desarrollado un modelo en elementos finitos del comportamiento hidrodinámico y térmico del flujo dentro del CTD. Los resultados numéricos indican que el retardo térmico, atribuidos originalmente a la acumulación de calor en la estructura del sensor, se debe fundamentalmente a la interacción del flujo que atraviesa la celda de conductividad con la geometría interna de la misma. Esta interacción es distinta a distintas velocidades del planeador submarino. Específicamente, a velocidades bajas del planeador (0.2 m/s), la mezcla del flujo entrante con las masas de agua remanentes en el interior de la celda, se ralentiza debido a la generación de remolinos. Se obtienen entonces desviaciones significantes entre la salinidad real y aquella estimada. En cambio, a velocidades más altas del planeador (0.4 m/s) los procesos de mezcla se incrementan debido a la turbulencia e inestabilidades. En consecuencia, la respuesta del sensor CTD es mas rápida y las estimaciones de la salinidad mas precisas que en el caso anterior. Para completar el trabajo, los resultados numéricos se han validado con pruebas experimentales. Específicamente, se ha construido un modelo a escala del sensor CTD para obtener la confirmación experimental de los modelos numéricos. Haciendo uso del principio de similaridad de la dinámica que gobierna los fluidos incompresibles, los experimentos se han realizado con flujos de aire. Esto simplifica significativamente la puesta experimental y facilita su realización en condiciones con medios limitados. Las pruebas experimentales han confirmado cualitativamente los resultados numéricos. Más aun, se sugiere en esta Tesis que la respuesta del sensor CTD mejoraría significativamente añadiendo un generador de turbulencia en localizaciones adecuadas al interno de la celda de conductividad. ABSTRACT Recent technological developments allow the transition of observational oceanography from a ship-based to a networking concept. The latter suggests that the most efficient and effective way to observe the Ocean is through a fleet of spatially distributed autonomous platforms complemented by remote sensing. Due to their maneuverability, autonomy and endurance at sea, underwater gliders are already playing a significant role in this networking observational approach. Underwater gliders were specifically designed to sample vast areas of the Ocean. These are robots with a torpedo shape that make use of their hydrodynamic shape, wings and buoyancy changes to induce horizontal and vertical motions through the water column. A sensor to measure the conductivity, temperature and depth (CTD) is a standard payload of this platform. This is because certain ocean dynamic variables can be derived from temperature, depth and salinity. The latter can be inferred from measurements of temperature and conductivity. Integrating CTD sensors in glider platforms is not exempted of challenges. One of them, concerns to the accuracy of the salinity values derived from the sampled conductivity and temperature. Specifically, salinity estimates are significantly degraded by the thermal lag response existing between the measured temperature and the real temperature inside the conductivity cell of the sensor. This deficiency depends on the particularities of the inflow to the sensor, its geometry and, it has also been hypothesized, on the heat accumulated by the sensor coating layers. The effects of thermal lag are usually mitigated by controlling the inflow conditions through the sensor. Controlling inflow conditions is usually achieved by pumping the water through the sensor or by keeping constant and known its diving speed. Although pumping systems have been recently implemented in CTD sensors on board gliders, there are still platforms with unpumped CTDs. In the latter case, salinity estimates rely on assuming reasonable controlled and unperturbed flow conditions at the CTD sensor. This Thesis investigates the impact, if any, that glider hydrodynamics may have on the performance of onboard CTDs. Specifically, the location of the CTD sensor (external to the hull) relative to the boundary layer developed along the glider fuselage, is first investigated. This is done, initially, by applying a coupled inviscid-boundary layer model developed by the author, and later by using a commercial software for computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Results indicate, in both cases, that the CTD sensor is out of the boundary layer, being its inflow conditions those of the free stream. Still, the inflow speed to the CTD sensor is the speed of the platform, which largely depends on its hydrodynamic setup. For this reason, the research has been further extended to investigate the effect of the platform speed on the performance of the CTD sensor. A finite element model of the hydrodynamic and thermal behavior of the flow inside the CTD sensor, is developed for this purpose. Numerical results suggest that the thermal lag effect is mostly due to the interaction of the flow through the conductivity cell and its geometry. This interaction is different at different speeds of the glider. Specifically, at low glider speeds (0.2 m/s), the mixing of recent and old waters inside the conductivity cell is slowed down by the generation of coherent eddy structures. Significant departures between real and estimated values of the salinity are found. Instead, mixing is enhanced by turbulence and instabilities for high glider speeds (0.4 m/s). As a result, the thermal response of the CTD sensor is faster and the salinity estimates more accurate than for the low speed case. For completeness, numerical results have been validated against model tests. Specifically, a scaled model of the CTD sensor was built to obtain experimental confirmation of the numerical results. Making use of the similarity principle of the dynamics governing incompressible fluids, experiments are carried out with air flows. This significantly simplifies the experimental setup and facilitates its realization in a limited resource condition. Model tests qualitatively confirm the numerical findings. Moreover, it is suggested in this Thesis that the response of the CTD sensor would be significantly improved by adding small turbulators at adequate locations inside the conductivity cell.

The water footprint of olives and olive oil in Spain

This paper evaluates the water footprint of Spanish olives and olive oil over the period 1997-2008. In particular, it analyses the three colour components of the water footprint: green (rainwater stored in the soil), blue (surface and groundwater) and grey (freshwater required to assimilate load of pollutants). Apparent water productivity and virtual water embedded in olive oil exports have also been studied. Results show more than 99.5% of the water footprint of one liter of bottled olive oil is related to the olive production, whereas less than 0.5% is due to the other components such as bottle, cap and label. Over the studied period, the green water footprint in absolute terms of Spanish olive oil production represents about 72% in rainfed systems and just 12% in irrigated olive orchards. Blue and grey water footprints represent 6% and 10% of the national water footprint, respectively. It is shown that olive production is concentrated in regions with the smallest water footprint per unit of product. However, the increase of groundwater consumption in the main olive producing region (Andalusia), from 98 to 378 Mm3 between 1997 and 2008, has added significant pressure in the upstream Guadalquivir basin. This raises questions about the sustainability of irrigated olive orchards for export from the region. Finally, the virtual water related to olive oil exports illustrate the importance of green water footprint of rainfed olives amounting to about 77% of the total virtual water exports.

Contribution of re-regulation reservoirs considering pumping capability to environmentally friendly hydropower operation

Environmental constraints imposed on hydropoweroperation are usually given in the form of minimum environmental flows and maximum and minimum rates of change of flows, or ramp rates. One solution proposed to mitigate the environmental impact caused by the flows discharged by a hydropower plant while reducing the economic impact of the above-mentioned constraints consists in building a re-regulationreservoir, or afterbay, downstream of the power plant. Adding pumpingcapability between the re-regulationreservoir and the main one could contribute both to reducing the size of the re-regulationreservoir, with the consequent environmental improvement, and to improving the economic feasibility of the project, always fulfilling the environmental constraints imposed to hydropoweroperation. The objective of this paper is studying the contribution of a re-regulationreservoir to fulfilling the environmental constraints while reducing the economic impact of said constraints. For that purpose, a revenue-driven optimization model based on mixed integer linear programming is used. Additionally, the advantages of adding pumpingcapability are analysed. In order to illustrate the applicability of the methodology, a case study based on a real hydropower plant is presented

solaR: Solar Radiation and Photovoltaic Systems with R

The solaR package allows for reproducible research both for photovoltaics (PV) systems performance and solar radiation. It includes a set of classes, methods and functions to calculate the sun geometry and the solar radiation incident on a photovoltaic generator and to simulate the performance of several applications of the photovoltaic energy. This package performs the whole calculation procedure from both daily and intradaily global horizontal irradiation to the final productivity of grid-connected PV systems and water pumping PV systems. It is designed using a set of S4 classes whose core is a group of slots with multivariate time series. The classes share a variety of methods to access the information and several visualization methods. In addition, the package provides a tool for the visual statistical analysis of the performance of a large PV plant composed of several systems. Although solaR is primarily designed for time series associated to a location defined by its latitude/longitude values and the temperature and irradiation conditions, it can be easily combined with spatial packages for space-time analysis.

Rheological behaviour and functionality of inulin-extra virgin olive oil-based mashed potatoes

Developing products having a high nutritional value and good storage stability during freezing is a challenge. Inulin (I) and extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) have interesting functional properties. The e?ect of the addition of I and EVOO blends at di?erent I:EVOO ratios (0:0, 0:60, 15:45, 30:30, 45:15, 60:0, 30:45 and 45:30) on the rheological, physical, sensory and structural properties of fresh and frozen ? thawed mashed potatoes formulated without and with added cryoprotectants was analysed and compared. Addition of I and EVOO (either alone or blended) reduced apparent viscosity and pseudoplasticity producing softer systems, indicating that both ingredients behave as soft ?llers. Samples with added I at the higher concentrations )1 (?45 g kg ) showed lower ?ow index and consistency, which is related to formation of smaller I particles; microphotographs indicated that gelling properties of I depended mostly upon processing. Frozen ? thawed samples were judged more acceptable and creamier than their fresh counterparts.

Simulating potential growth and yield of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) with PALMSIM: Model description, evaluation and application.

Reducing the gap between water-limited potential yield and actual yield in oil palm production systems through intensification is seen as an important option for sustainably increasing palm oil production. Simulation models can play an important role in quantifying water-limited potential yield, and therefore the scope for intensification, but no oil palm model exists that is both simple enough and at the same time incorporates sufficient plant physiological knowledge to be generally applicable across sites with different growing conditions. The objectives of this study therefore were to develop a model (PALMSIM) that simulates, on a monthly time step, the potential growth of oil palm as determined by solar radiation and to evaluate model performance against measured oil palm yields under optimal water and nutrient management for a range of sites across Indonesia and Malaysia. The maximum observed yield in the field matches the corresponding simulated yield for dry bunch weight with a RMSE of 1.7 Mg ha?1 year?1 against an observed yield of 18.8 Mg ha?1. Sensitivity analysis showed that PALMSIM is robust: simulated changes in yield caused by modifying the parameters by 10% are comparable to other tree crop model evaluations. While we acknowledge that, depending on the soils and climatic environment, yields may be often water limited, we suggest a relatively simple physiological approach to simulate potential yield, which can be usefully applied to high rainfall environments and is considered as a first step in developing an oil palm model that also simulates water-limited potential yield. To illustrate the application possibil- ities of the model, PALMSIM was used to create a potential yield map for Indonesia and Malaysia by sim- ulating the growth and yield at a resolution of 0.1?. This map of potential yield is considered as a first step towards a decision support tool that can identify potentially productive, but at the moment degraded sites in Indonesia and Malaysia. ?

Hydrodynamic forces on heave plates for offshore systems oscillating close to the seabed or the free surface

La energía eólica marina es uno de los recursos energéticos con mayor proyección pudiendo contribuir a reducir el consumo de combustibles fósiles y a cubrir la demanda de energía en todo el mundo. El concepto de aerogenerador marino está basado en estructuras fijas como jackets o en plataformas flotantes, ya sea una semisumergible o una TLP. Se espera que la energía eólica offshore juegue un papel importante en el perfil de producción energética de los próximos años; por tanto, las turbinas eólicas deben hacerse más fables y rentables para ser competitivas frente a otras fuentes de energía. Las estructuras flotantes pueden experimentar movimientos resonantes en estados de la mar con largos períodos de oleaje. Estos movimientos disminuyen su operatividad y pueden causar daños en los componentes eléctricos de las turbinas y en las palas, también en los risers y moorings. La respuesta de la componente vertical del movimiento puede reducirse mediante diferentes actuaciones: (1) aumentando la amortiguación del sistema, (2) manteniendo el período del movimiento vertical fuera del rango de la energía de la ola, y (3) reduciendo las fuerzas de excitación verticales. Un ejemplo típico para llevar a cabo esta reducción son las "Heave Plates". Las heave plates son placas que se utilizan en la industria offshore debido a sus características hidrodinámicas, ya que aumentan la masa añadida y la amortiguación del sistema. En un análisis hidrodinámico convencional, se considera una estructura sometida a un oleaje con determinadas características y se evalúan las cargas lineales usando la teoría potencial. El amortiguamiento viscoso, que juega un papel crucial en la respuesta en resonancia del sistema, es un dato de entrada para el análisis. La tesis se centra principalmente en la predicción del amortiguamiento viscoso y de la masa añadida de las heave plates usadas en las turbinas eólicas flotantes. En los cálculos, las fuerzas hidrodinámicas se han obtenido con el f n de estudiar cómo los coeficientes hidrodinámicos de masa añadida5 y amortiguamiento varían con el número de KC, que caracteriza la amplitud del movimiento respecto al diámetro del disco. Por otra parte, se ha investigado la influencia de la distancia media de la ‘heave plate’ a la superficie libre o al fondo del mar, sobre los coeficientes hidrodinámicos. En este proceso, un nuevo modelo que describe el trabajo realizado por la amortiguación en función de la enstrofía, es descrito en el presente documento. Este nuevo enfoque es capaz de proporcionar una correlación directa entre el desprendimiento local de vorticidad y la fuerza de amortiguación global. El análisis también incluye el estudio de los efectos de la geometría de la heave plate, y examina la sensibilidad de los coeficientes hidrodinámicos al incluir porosidad en ésta. Un diseño novedoso de una heave plate, basado en la teoría fractal, también fue analizado experimentalmente y comparado con datos experimentales obtenidos por otros autores. Para la resolución de las ecuaciones de Navier Stokes se ha usado un solver basado en el método de volúmenes finitos. El solver usa las librerías de OpenFOAM (Open source Field Operation And Manipulation), para resolver un problema multifásico e incompresible, usando la técnica VOF (volume of fluid) que permite capturar el movimiento de la superficie libre. Los resultados numéricos han sido comparados con resultados experimentales llevados a cabo en el Canal del Ensayos Hidrodinámicos (CEHINAV) de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid y en el Canal de Experiencias Hidrodinámicas (CEHIPAR) en Madrid, al igual que con otros experimentos realizados en la Escuela de Ingeniería Mecánica de la Universidad de Western Australia. Los principales resultados se presentan a continuación: 1. Para pequeños valores de KC, los coeficientes hidrodinámicos de masa añadida y amortiguamiento incrementan su valor a medida que el disco se aproxima al fondo marino. Para los casos cuando el disco oscila cerca de la superficie libre, la dependencia de los coeficientes hidrodinámicos es más fuerte por la influencia del movimiento de la superficie libre. 2. Los casos analizados muestran la existencia de un valor crítico de KC, donde la tendencia de los coeficientes hidrodinámicos se ve alterada. Dicho valor crítico depende de la distancia al fondo marino o a la superficie libre. 3. El comportamiento físico del flujo, para valores de KC cercanos a su valor crítico ha sido estudiado mediante el análisis del campo de vorticidad. 4. Introducir porosidad al disco, reduce la masa añadida para los valores de KC estudiados, pero se ha encontrado que la porosidad incrementa el valor del coeficiente de amortiguamiento cuando se incrementa la amplitud del movimiento, logrando un máximo de damping para un disco con 10% de porosidad. 5. Los resultados numéricos y experimentales para los discos con faldón, muestran que usar este tipo de geometrías incrementa la masa añadida cuando se compara con el disco sólido, pero reduce considerablemente el coeficiente de amortiguamiento. 6. Un diseño novedoso de heave plate basado en la teoría fractal ha sido experimentalmente estudiado a diferentes calados y comparado con datos experimentales obtenidos por otro autores. Los resultados muestran un comportamiento incierto de los coeficientes y por tanto este diseño debería ser estudiado más a fondo. ABSTRACT Offshore wind energy is one of the promising resources which can reduce the fossil fuel energy consumption and cover worldwide energy demands. Offshore wind turbine concepts are based on either a fixed structure as a jacket or a floating offshore platform like a semisubmersible, spar or tension leg platform. Floating offshore wind turbines have the potential to be an important part of the energy production profile in the coming years. In order to accomplish this wind integration, these wind turbines need to be made more reliable and cost efficient to be competitive with other sources of energy. Floating offshore artifacts, such oil rings and wind turbines, may experience resonant heave motions in sea states with long peak periods. These heave resonances may increase the system downtime and cause damage on the system components and as well as on risers and mooring systems. The heave resonant response may be reduced by different means: (1) increasing the damping of the system, (2) keeping the natural heave period outside the range of the wave energy, and (3) reducing the heave excitation forces. A typical example to accomplish this reduction are “Heave Plates”. Heave plates are used in the offshore industry due to their hydrodynamic characteristics, i.e., increased added mass and damping. Conventional offshore hydrodynamic analysis considers a structure in waves, and evaluates the linear and nonlinear loads using potential theory. Viscous damping, which is expected to play a crucial role in the resonant response, is an empirical input to the analysis, and is not explicitly calculated. The present research has been mainly focused on the prediction of viscous damping and added mass of floating offshore wind turbine heave plates. In the calculations, the hydrodynamic forces have been measured in order to compute how the hydrodynamic coefficients of added mass1 and damping vary with the KC number, which characterises the amplitude of heave motion relative to the diameter of the disc. In addition, the influence on the hydrodynamic coefficients when the heave plate is oscillating close to the free surface or the seabed has been investigated. In this process, a new model describing the work done by damping in terms of the flow enstrophy, is described herein. This new approach is able to provide a direct correlation between the local vortex shedding processes and the global damping force. The analysis also includes the study of different edges geometry, and examines the sensitivity of the damping and added mass coefficients to the porosity of the plate. A novel porous heave plate based on fractal theory has also been proposed, tested experimentally and compared with experimental data obtained by other authors for plates with similar porosity. A numerical solver of Navier Stokes equations, based on the finite volume technique has been applied. It uses the open-source libraries of OpenFOAM (Open source Field Operation And Manipulation), to solve 2 incompressible, isothermal immiscible fluids using a VOF (volume of fluid) phase-fraction based interface capturing approach, with optional mesh motion and mesh topology changes including adaptive re-meshing. Numerical results have been compared with experiments conducted at Technical University of Madrid (CEHINAV) and CEHIPAR model basins in Madrid and with others performed at School of Mechanical Engineering in The University of Western Australia. A brief summary of main results are presented below: 1. At low KC numbers, a systematic increase in added mass and damping, corresponding to an increase in the seabed proximity, is observed. Specifically, for the cases when the heave plate is oscillating closer to the free surface, the dependence of the hydrodynamic coefficients is strongly influenced by the free surface. 2. As seen in experiments, a critical KC, where the linear trend of the hydrodynamic coefficients with KC is disrupted and that depends on the seabed or free surface distance, has been found. 3. The physical behavior of the flow around the critical KC has been explained through an analysis of the flow vorticity field. 4. The porosity of the heave plates reduces the added mass for the studied porosity at all KC numbers, but the porous heave plates are found to increase the damping coefficient with increasing amplitude of oscillation, achieving a maximum damping coefficient for the heave plate with 10% porosity in the entire KC range. 5. Another concept taken into account in this work has been the heave plates with flaps. Numerical and experimental results show that using discs with flaps will increase added mass when compared to the plain plate but may also significantly reduce damping. 6. A novel heave plate design based on fractal theory has tested experimentally for different submergences and compared with experimental data obtained by other authors for porous plates. Results show an unclear behavior in the coefficients and should be studied further. Future work is necessary in order to address a series of open questions focusing on 3D effects, optimization of the heave plates shapes, etc.