Thermal evolution of lower limbs during a rehabilitation process after anterior cruciate ligament surgery

Infrared thermography (IRT) is a safe and non-invasive tool used for examining physiological functions based on skin temperature (Tsk) control. The aim of this paper was to establish the probable thermal difference between the beginning and the end of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rehabilitation process after surgery. For this purpose thermograms from 25 ACL surgically operated patients (2 women, 23 men) were taken on the first and last day of a six-week rehabilitation program. A FLIR infrared camera according to the protocol established by the International Academy of Clinical Thermology (IACT). The results showed significant temperature increases in the posterior thigh area between the first and the last week of the rehabilitation process probably due to a compensatory mechanism. According to this, we can conclude that temperature of the posterior area of the injured and non-injured leg has increased from the first to the last day of the rehabilitation process.

Use of infrared thermography as a tool to monitor skin temperature along the recovery process of an anterior cruciate ligament surgery

Infrared thermography (IRT) is a safe and non-invasive tool used for examining physiological functions based on skin temperature (Tsk) control. Thermograms from 25 anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) surgically operated patients (2 female, 23 male) were taken with a FLIR infrared camera according to the protocol established by the International Academy of Clinical Thermology (IACT). This work consists of 4 studies. Studies 1 and 3 were related to establish the probable thermal difference among different moments of an ACL rupture after surgery: before starting the rehabilitation (P0), at the end of rehabilitation (P1) and 18 months from the end of rehabilitation (P2). For this purpose, on the other hand, studies 2 and 4 were related to establish the skin thermal difference (Tsk) between the injured and the non-injured leg in P0, P1 and P2. Results of the first study showed significant temperature increases in the posterior thigh area between P0 and P1 probably due to a compensatory mechanism. According to this, we can conclude that temperature of the posterior area of the injured and noninjured leg has increased from the first to the last day of the rehabilitation process. In the second study we found significant temperature differences between the injured and non-injured leg in both stages of rehabilitation (p<.01). On the one hand, the temperature of the injured leg is higher in the anterior view and the temperature of the non-injured leg is higher in the posterior view. By the time the patients had recovered from the reconstruction, thermal imbalances should have not been shown between symmetrical parts, but differences seemed to be still latent.. Study 3 shows that temperatures seem to be higher after a year and a half (P2) than in P1. Study 4 shows how thermal values 18 months later seemed to be normalized between both legs. No significant differences were found between the injured leg and the noninjured leg after one year and a half of the rehabilitation process. Considering results from Study 3 and 4 we can conclude that patients seemed to have recovered from a thermal point of view. The temperature in P2 was higher but symmetrical. RESUMEN La termografía infrarroja (IRT) es una herramienta segura y no invasiva utilizada para examinar funciones fisiológicas que se basan en el control de temperatura de la piel (Tsk). Termogramas de 25 pacientes intervenidos quirúrgicamente del ligamento cruzado anterior (LCA) (2 mujeres, 23 hombres) fueron tomadas con una cámara de infrarrojos FLIR de acuerdo con el protocolo establecido por la Academia Internacional de Termología Clínica (IACT). Este trabajo consiste en 4 estudios. Los estudios 1 y 3 describen la diferencia térmica entre los diferentes momentos tras la operación del ligamento cruzado anterior: antes de comenzar la rehabilitación (P0), al final de la rehabilitación (P1) y 18 meses tras finalizar la rehabilitación (P2). Por otra parte, los estudios 2 y 4 describen la diferencia de temperatura de la piel (Tsk) entre la pierna lesionada y la pierna no lesionada en P0, P1 y P2. Los resultados del primer estudio mostraron aumentos significativos de temperatura en la zona posterior de los muslos entre P0 y P1, probablemente debido a un mecanismo de compensación. De acuerdo con esto, se puede concluir que la temperatura de la zona posterior de la pierna lesionada y no lesionada se ha incrementado desde el primero hasta el último día del proceso de rehabilitación. En el segundo estudio se encontraron diferencias significativas de temperatura entre la pierna lesionada y no lesionada en ambas etapas de la rehabilitación (p<.01). Por un lado, la temperatura de la pierna lesionada es mayor en la vista anterior. Por otro lado, la temperatura de la pierna no lesionada es mayor en la vista posterior. Una vez que los pacientes se han recuperado de todo el proceso, no deberían existir desequilibrios térmicos entre partes simétricas del cuerpo, pero las diferencias todavía estaban latentes. El tercer estudio muestra que la temperatura es más alta en P2 que en P1. El cuarto estudio muestra cómo los valores térmicos entre ambas piernas en P2 se han normalizado entre ambas piernas. No se encontraron diferencias significativas entre la pierna lesionada y la pierna no lesionada después de 18 meses tras el proceso de rehabilitación. Considerando los resultados del studio 3 y 4, podemos concluir que se ha llegado a la recuperación total desde un punto de vista térmico. La temperatura es más elevada en P2 pero simétrica.

Sensibilidad a las entallas del acero inoxidable dúplex fuertemente trefilado

En el presente trabajo se estudia la sensibilidad a las entallas suaves de alambres de acero inoxidable dúplex fuertemente trefilado. Las entallas consideradas son reducciones de la sección transversal del alambre no simétricas respecto al eje de revolución. Tras constatar experimentalmente que los alambres con este tipo de daño fallan por agotamiento plástico, se ha determinado numéricamente la carga de agotamiento plástico en función de la profundidad de entalla empleando un mode-lo computacional de elementos finitos. Los resultados numéricos indican que la mayor deformabilidad del alambre debida a la entalla actúa en favor de su tolerancia al daño y permite que ésta alcance el límite superior dado por la carga de agotamiento a tracción simple del ligamento resistente.This research deals with the sensitivity to blunt notches of highly cold-drawn wires made of dúplex stainless steel. The analyzed notches are actually reductions of the wire cross section, asymmetrically mechanized with respect to the longitudinal wire axis. Once experimentally verified that the notched wires fail by plástic collapse, the failure load was found as a function of notch depth by means of a finite element model. The numerical results show that the higher compliance of the wires provided by the notch increases their damage tolerance up to the upper bound given by the tensile plástic failure load of the notch ligament.

Análisis de la incidencia lesional en el fútbol profesional español en la temporada 2008-2009

Se ha descrito en la literatura como el fútbol es un deporte en cuya práctica existe una alta incidencia de lesión. Sin embargo, en España, hasta el momento no se había llevado a cabo ningún estudio que analizara la incidencia de lesión de los jugadores de fútbol profesional. Para poder prevenir lesiones, en primer lugar debemos de identificar la magnitud del problema, así como conocer aquellos factores que pueden influir sobre la producción de lesiones, Éste es principal objetivo de nuestro estudio para, a partir de él, poder diseñar e introducir en la práctica deportiva medidas preventivas con el objetivo de disminuir la incidencia de lesión en el fútbol. Hay que considerar que nos encontramos ante un estudio descriptivo, el cual se caracteriza, por no tener una hipótesis previa. En él nos planteamos como principal objetivo el conocer la influencia de los diferentes factores que influyen en la posibilidad de sufrir una lesión en el fútbol, además de realizar un análisis que describiera las lesiones sufridas, así como sus periodos de recuperación, en el fútbol profesional español, En esta investigación, participaron 27 equipos pertenecientes a la primera y segunda división española (728 jugadores), registrándose durante la temporada 2008- 2009 un total de 2184 lesiones. Para el registro de las lesiones, se utilizó el cuestionario REINLE cumplimentado de forma confidencial por miembros del equipo técnico de los clubes colaboradores, a través de la base de datos LEFUTPRO con acceso vía internet. Como dato general, encontramos que en la práctica del fútbol profesional existe una elevada incidencia de lesión con 8,92 les.*1000h. de exposición, siendo ésta mayor en competición (41,33 les.*1000h.) que en entrenamiento (6,02 les.*1000h.), valores muy acordes a los encontrados en la literatura científica especifica. Se registraron un promedio de 81 lesiones que causaron baja por equipo y temporada, provocando una ausencia media por lesión de 11,3 días. De estas lesiones, el 11,9% de ellas fueron de carácter recidivante, las cuales causaron periodos de baja superiores a las lesiones iníciales, alcanzando un valor promedio de 17,9 días de baja por lesión. El 84,4% las lesiones que se registraron, se localizaron en la extremidad inferior, siendo el muslo, con un 30,5% de todas las lesiones, la región corporal más afectada. A su vez, dentro del muslo, el 53% de las lesiones se localizaron en la región posterior, dentro de la cual, en el 73% de los casos la lesión afectó al bíceps femoral. Además, se encontró una mayor frecuencia de lesión en la pierna dominante (54,4% de las todas las lesiones) frente a la no dominante (36,5% de las todas las lesiones). Desde el punto de vista de la tipología de la lesión, las lesiones de carácter muscular con un 49,1% de los casos, fueron las más frecuentes, seguidas de las lesiones ligamentosas con un 15,1% de los casos. Los mecanismos de producción de lesiones en el jugador sin contacto, fueron más frecuentes (69,1% de todos los casos), que aquellos mecanismos de lesión en los que si hubo contacto (30,9%). En relación al momento de producción de lesión a lo largo de la temporada, se encontró que las lesiones sufridas en entrenamiento fueron progresivamente menos frecuentes con el transcurso de la temporada, mientras que en la competición se fueron incrementando, siendo los últimos meses de la temporada cuando se registraron la mayor parte de las lesiones. A partir de este estudio, proponemos ampliar la investigación en esta línea, concretando algunos de los aspectos que hemos podido identificar a través de nuestros resultados, y que en un futuro puedan tener alguna aplicación práctica en el objetivo común de reducir la incidencia de lesión existente en la práctica deportiva del fútbol. ABSTRACT Football has been described in literature as a sport in which there is a high incidence of injuries. Nevertheless, in Spain, to date, not a single study analyzing the incidence of lesions in professional football players has been carried out. In order to prevent lesions, in the first place we must identify the magnitude of the problem, as well as discover those factors that may influence on the production of lesions, being the latter the main objective of our study, and hence, starting from this point, be able to design and introduce in sports practice preventive measures with the aim of decreasing the incidence of lesions. We must take into consideration that we are before a study characterized by the fact of not having a previous hypothesis. In the present study, our main areas of focus is finding out the different factors that have influence on the possibility of suffering a lesion in this sports practice, as well as carrying out an analysis that describes the lesions suffered in professional football, as well as the necessary recovery periods. 27 teams (728 players), belonging to Spain’s First and Second Football (soccer) Divisions took part in this research. During the 2008-2009 season, a total of 2,184 lesions were registered. To register the lesions, a REINLE questionnaire, of the LEFUTPRO database was used, with access via internet. Each of the participating teams was given a password in a totally confidential manner. In the first place, we found that in the practice of professional football there exists a high incidence of lesions, with 8.92 lesions per 1000 h. of exposure. We found an increase in lesions during competitions (41.33 lesions per 1000 h.) with respect to those occurring during training (6.02 lesions per 1000 h.); these values being in accordance with those found in specific scientific literature. An average of 81 lesions that implied sick leaves were registered per team and season, causing an average of 11.3 days of absence per lesion. Of these, 11.9% of all the lesions studied were recurrent, causing longer sick leave periods than the ones due to the initial lesions and reaching an average of 17.9 days of sick leave per lesion. 84.4% of the lesions registered were located in the inferior extremities, the thigh being the anatomical region, with 30.5% of all the lesions, the most affected body region. In turn, 53% of the lesions to the thigh occurred in the posterior area, and within the latter, in 73% of the cases, the lesion affected the femoral biceps. In addition, we found a greater frequency of lesions in the dominant leg (54.4% of all the lesions), in contrast with the non dominant leg (36.5% of all the lesions). From the point of view of lesion type the most frequent lesions were muscular (49.1% of all cases), followed by ligament lesions (15.1%). Most of the lesions were produced during moments in which the players were not in physical contact at the moment of suffering the injury (69.1%), in comparison with those produced when there was physical contact (30.9%). With relation to the instance in which the injuries were produced along the season, we found that those lesions suffered during training were progressively less frequent as the season wore on, whilst those suffered during competitions gradually incremented, being the last months of the season when most of the injuries were registered. From the research of this study, we propose the need to carry out more research in this same line, focalizing on some more concrete aspects, which, through our results, we have been able to realize that would be interesting to study in greater depth, and that in the future, our results may have a practical application, helping reduce the incidence of injuries that exist in this sport practice.

Periodic emission of droplets from an oscillating electrified meniscus of a low-viscosity, highly conductive liquid

The generation of identical droplets of controllable size in the micrometer range is a problem of much interest owing to the numerous technological applications of such droplets. This work reports an investigation of the regime of periodic emission of droplets from an electrified oscillating meniscus of a liquid of low viscosity and high electrical conductivity attached to the end of a capillary tube, which may be used to produce droplets more than ten times smaller than the diameter of the tube. To attain this periodic microdripping regime, termed axial spray mode II by Juraschek and Röllgen [R. Juraschek and F. W. Röllgen, Int. J. Mass Spectrom. 177, 1 (1998)], liquid is continuously supplied through the tube at a given constant flow rate, while a dc voltage is applied between the tube and a nearby counter electrode. The resulting electric field induces a stress at the surface of the liquid that stretches the meniscus until, in certain ranges of voltage and flow rate, it develops a ligament that eventually detaches, forming a single droplet, in a process that repeats itself periodically. While it is being stretched, the ligament develops a conical tip that emits ultrafine droplets, but the total mass emitted is practically contained in the main droplet. In the parametrical domain studied, we find that the process depends on two main dimensionless parameters, the flow rate nondimensionalized with the diameter of the tube and the capillary time, q, and the electric Bond number BE, which is a nondimensional measure of the square of the applied voltage. The meniscus oscillation frequency made nondimensional with the capillary time, f, is of order unity for very small flow rates and tends to decrease as the inverse of the square root of q for larger values of this parameter. The product of the meniscus mean volume times the oscillation frequency is nearly constant. The characteristic length and width of the liquid ligament immediately before its detachment approximately scale as powers of the flow rate and depend only weakly on the applied voltage. The diameter of the main droplets nondimensionalized with the diameter of the tube satisfies dd≈(6/π)1/3(q/f)1/3, from mass conservation, while the electric charge of these droplets is about 1/4 of the Rayleigh charge. At the minimum flow rate compatible with the periodic regimen, the dimensionless diameter of the droplets is smaller than one-tenth, which presents a way to use electrohydrodynamic atomization to generate droplets of highly conducting liquids in the micron-size range, in marked contrast with the cone-jet electrospray whose typical droplet size is in the nanometric regime for these liquids. In contrast with other microdripping regimes where the mass is emitted upon the periodic formation of a narrow capillary jet, the present regime gives one single droplet per oscillation, except for the almost massless fine aerosol emitted in the form of an electrospray.