Comparison of CO2 From Coal Capture Processes and Valorisation Technologies

Coal is the most plentiful and evenly distributed fossil fuel worldwide. Based on current production, it is estimated that the reserves will last approximately 130 years. Its use worldwide has been increasing, mainly due to consumption by emerging countries. CO2 emissions generated by combustion and the repercussions of such on climate change support the view that it could no longer be used. CO2 capture may be the solution to continue using it, which would cater for the growing energy demand worldwide. The aim of this study is to compare different processes concerning CO2 capture that may be economically viable, ultimately showing that coal, a fossil energy source widely distributed around the world, can, as a result of using different CO2 capture processes, be used as a clean source of electricity. Hence, in places where geological hurdles may render the costs of CO2 storage considerably higher, since it might have to travel far, coal may be used for other purposes, thus valorising CO2 within the industrial sector. This research is focused on the technical and economic comparison of the most relevant CO2 capture projects designed in Spain using different existing technologies. The oxyfuel project in Ciuden (Leon, Spain), the IGCC Elcogas, precombustion CO2-capture project (Puertollano, Spain) and the postcombustion project in Carboneras (Almeria, Spain) will be analyzed in order to assess the options available to valorise captured CO2. Valorising captured CO2 may be an adequate solution in areas where, although CO2 capture is still possible, storage is not equally so, thus generating a further benefit. The possible uses of CO2 will be assessed in vegetable growing greenhouses, harnessing CO2 in vegetable life cycles. This will also be used in growing algae for subsequent biodiesel production. Both CO2 capture and valorising will eventually lead to the clean use of coal, which will thus enhance the level of self-supply, aiding the development of electric vehicles, which require large amounts of electricity, as well as improve the level of energy autonomy in countries around the world. Another type of fuel, biodiesel, will also be obtained, without this affecting international food prices.

Comparison of CO2 from coal captureprocesses and valorisation technologies

Coal is the most plentiful and evenly distributed fossil fuel worldwide. Based on current production, it is estimated that the reserves will last approximately 130 years. Its use worldwide has been increasing, mainly due to consumption by emerging countries. CO2 emissions generated by combustion and the repercussions of such on climate change support the view that it could no longer be used. CO2 capture may be the solution to continue using it, which would cater for the growing energy demand worldwide. The aim of this study is to compare different processes concerning CO2 capture that may be economically viable, ultimately showing that coal, a fossil energy source widely distributed around the world, can, as a result of using different CO2 capture processes, be used as a clean source of electricity. Hence, in places where geological hurdles may render the costs of CO2 storage considerably higher, since it might have to travel far, coal may be used for other purposes, thus valorizing CO2 within the industrial sector. This research is focused on the technical and economic comparison of the most relevant CO2 capture projects designed in Spain using different existing technologies. The oxyfuel project in Ciuden (Leon, Spain), the IGCC Elcogas, precombustion CO2-capture project (Puertollano, Spain) and the postcombustion project in Carboneras (Almeria, Spain) will be analyzed in order to assess the options available to valorizecaptured CO2. Valorizing captured CO2 may be an adequate solution in areas where, although CO2 capture is still possible, storage is not equally so, thus generating a further benefit. The possible uses of CO2 will be assessed in vegetable growing greenhouses, harnessing CO2 in vegetable life cycles. This will also be used in growing algae for subsequent biodiesel production. Both CO2capture and valorizing will eventually lead to the clean use of coal, which will thus enhance the level of self-supply, aiding the development of electric vehicles, which require large amounts of electricity, as well as improve the level of energy autonomy in countries around the world. Another type of fuel, biodiesel, will also be obtained, without this affecting international food prices.

Análisis biomecánico zancada a zancada de la prueba "60 metros vallas" durante los campeonatos del mundo y de España de pista cubierta Valencia 2008

El principal objetivo del presente trabajo de investigación fue determinar las diferencias en distintas variables relacionadas con el rendimiento físico entre atletas de distinto nivel durante la prueba de los 60 metros vallas. Un total de 59 vallistas masculinos (los 31 participantes en el Campeonato del Mundo Absoluto de Pista Cubierta y los 28 participantes en el Campeonato de España Absoluto de Pista Cubierta, ambos celebrados en Valencia en el año 2008) formaron la muestra del estudio. El análisis biomecánico se realizó mediante un sistema fotogramétrico en dos dimensiones que permitió calcular, aplicando algoritmos basados en el procedimiento de la DLT (Abdel-Aziz y Karara, 1971), las coordenadas (x, y) de los sucesivos apoyos de los pies de los atletas sobre toda la superficie de competición. La filmación de las pruebas se llevó a cabo con seis cámaras de vídeo, ubicadas sobre la gradas, con una frecuencia de muestreo para el tratamiento de los datos de 50 Hz. En la fase de salida, los atletas de nivel superior mostraron una menor longitud (p<0,05) y tiempo de zancada (p<0,001), debido a un menor tiempo de vuelo (p<0,05). En la fase de vallas, los atletas de nivel más elevado presentaron mayores distancia de ataque a la valla (p<0,001), así como menores distancias de caída de la valla (p<0,001), tiempos de zancada (p<0,01-0,001) y de apoyo (p<0,01-0,001 ) en los cuatro pasos que conforman cada ciclo de vallas, así como un menor tiempo de vuelo en el paso de valla (p<0,001) y en el paso de transición (p<0,001). De manera adicional, se encontraron importantes diferencias en el reparto de los pasos entre vallas entre la primera y tercera valla y el resto de obstáculos. En la fase final, se observó una mayor longitud de zancada en los atletas de nivel superior (p<0,001), así como un menor tiempo de zancada (p<0,01) y de apoyo (p<0,01). Los resultados obtenidos en el presente estudio de investigación avalan la utilización de la fotogrametría en dos dimensiones para el análisis biomecánico de la prueba de 60 metros vallas en competición. Su aplicación en competiciones del máximo nivel internacional ha posibilitado conocer las características de los vallistas a lo largo de toda la prueba y determinar posibles implicaciones de cara al proceso de entrenamiento. ABSTRACT The aim of this research was to determine the differences in different variables related to physical performance among athletes of different levels during the race of 60 meter hurdles. A total of 59 male hurdlers (the 31 participants in the World Indoor Championship and the 28 participants in the Spanish Indoor Championship, both held in Valencia in 2008) formed the sample of the study. The biomechanical analysis of athletes was performed using a two-dimensional photogrammetric system which enabled calculation, applying algorithms based on the DLT method (Abdel -Aziz y Karara , 1971), the coordinates (x , y) of the successive supports of the feet on the entire competition surface. Filming test was conducted with six video cameras, located on the bleachers, with a sampling frequency for data processing of 50 Hz. In the approach run phase, the top-level athletes showed a smaller length step (p<0.05), and shorter step time (p<0.001), due to a shorter step flight time (p<0.05). In the hurdle unit phase, the higher level athletes had greater take-off distances (p<0.001), shorter landing distances (p<0.001), smaller step times (p<0.01-0.001), and support times (p<0.01- 0.001) in the four steps that comprised each hurdle unit, and smaller flight times in the hurdle step (p < 0.001), and the recovery step (p<0.001). Additionally, differences in the distribution of hurdle unit steps between the first and third hurdle, and other hurdles were found. In the run-in phase, a greater step length in top-level athletes (p<0.001), and a shorter step time (p<0.01) and contact time (p<0.01) was observed. The results obtained in this study support the use of photogrammetry in two dimensions for biomechanical analysis in 60 meter hurdles competition events. Its application at the highest international level competitions has allowed to know the characteristics of the hurdlers over the entire race and identify possible implications for the training process.