Auto-localization algorithm for local positioning systems

This paper studies the problem of determining the position of beacon nodes in Local Positioning Systems (LPSs), for which there are no inter-beacon distance measurements available and neither the mobile node nor any of the stationary nodes have positioning or odometry information. The common solution is implemented using a mobile node capable of measuring its distance to the stationary beacon nodes within a sensing radius. Many authors have implemented heuristic methods based on optimization algorithms to solve the problem. However, such methods require a good initial estimation of the node positions in order to find the correct solution. In this paper we present a new method to calculate the inter-beacon distances, and hence the beacons positions, based in the linearization of the trilateration equations into a closed-form solution which does not require any approximate initial estimation. The simulations and field evaluations show a good estimation of the beacon node positions.

Modelling and Control of Stepper Motors for High Accuracy Positioning Systems Used in Radioactive Environments

Hybrid Stepper Motors are widely used in open-loop position applications. They are the choice of actuation for the collimators in the Large Hadron Collider, the largest particle accelerator at CERN. In this case the positioning requirements and the highly radioactive operating environment are unique. The latter forces both the use of long cables to connect the motors to the drives which act as transmission lines and also prevents the use of standard position sensors. However, reliable and precise operation of the collimators is critical for the machine, requiring the prevention of step loss in the motors and maintenance to be foreseen in case of mechanical degradation. In order to make the above possible, an approach is proposed for the application of an Extended Kalman Filter to a sensorless stepper motor drive, when the motor is separated from its drive by long cables. When the long cables and high frequency pulse width modulated control voltage signals are used together, the electrical signals difer greatly between the motor and drive-side of the cable. Since in the considered case only drive-side data is available, it is therefore necessary to estimate the motor-side signals. Modelling the entire cable and motor system in an Extended Kalman Filter is too computationally intensive for standard embedded real-time platforms. It is, in consequence, proposed to divide the problem into an Extended Kalman Filter, based only on the motor model, and separated motor-side signal estimators, the combination of which is less demanding computationally. The efectiveness of this approach is shown in simulation. Then its validity is experimentally demonstrated via implementation in a DSP based drive. A testbench to test its performance when driving an axis of a Large Hadron Collider collimator is presented along with the results achieved. It is shown that the proposed method is capable of achieving position and load torque estimates which allow step loss to be detected and mechanical degradation to be evaluated without the need for physical sensors. These estimation algorithms often require a precise model of the motor, but the standard electrical model used for hybrid stepper motors is limited when currents, which are high enough to produce saturation of the magnetic circuit, are present. New model extensions are proposed in order to have a more precise model of the motor independently of the current level, whilst maintaining a low computational cost. It is shown that a significant improvement in the model It is achieved with these extensions, and their computational performance is compared to study the cost of model improvement versus computation cost. The applicability of the proposed model extensions is demonstrated via their use in an Extended Kalman Filter running in real-time for closed-loop current control and mechanical state estimation. An additional problem arises from the use of stepper motors. The mechanics of the collimators can wear due to the abrupt motion and torque profiles that are applied by them when used in the standard way, i.e. stepping in open-loop. Closed-loop position control, more specifically Field Oriented Control, would allow smoother profiles, more respectful to the mechanics, to be applied but requires position feedback. As mentioned already, the use of sensors in radioactive environments is very limited for reliability reasons. Sensorless control is a known option but when the speed is very low or zero, as is the case most of the time for the motors used in the LHC collimator, the loss of observability prevents its use. In order to allow the use of position sensors without reducing the long term reliability of the whole system, the possibility to switch from closed to open loop is proposed and validated, allowing the use of closed-loop control when the position sensors function correctly and open-loop when there is a sensor failure. A different approach to deal with the switched drive working with long cables is also presented. Switched mode stepper motor drives tend to have poor performance or even fail completely when the motor is fed through a long cable due to the high oscillations in the drive-side current. The design of a stepper motor output fillter which solves this problem is thus proposed. A two stage filter, one devoted to dealing with the diferential mode and the other with the common mode, is designed and validated experimentally. With this ?lter the drive performance is greatly improved, achieving a positioning repeatability even better than with the drive working without a long cable, the radiated emissions are reduced and the overvoltages at the motor terminals are eliminated.

Intelligent automatic overtaking system using vision for vehicle detection

There is clear evidence that investment in intelligent transportation system technologies brings major social and economic benefits. Technological advances in the area of automatic systems in particular are becoming vital for the reduction of road deaths. We here describe our approach to automation of one the riskiest autonomous manœuvres involving vehicles – overtaking. The approach is based on a stereo vision system responsible for detecting any preceding vehicle and triggering the autonomous overtaking manœuvre. To this end, a fuzzy-logic based controller was developed to emulate how humans overtake. Its input is information from the vision system and from a positioning-based system consisting of a differential global positioning system (DGPS) and an inertial measurement unit (IMU). Its output is the generation of action on the vehicle’s actuators, i.e., the steering wheel and throttle and brake pedals. The system has been incorporated into a commercial Citroën car and tested on the private driving circuit at the facilities of our research center, CAR, with different preceding vehicles – a motorbike, car, and truck – with encouraging results.

Traffic jam driving with NMV avoidance

n recent years, the development of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) – mainly based on lidar and cameras – has considerably improved the safety of driving in urban environments. These systems provide warning signals for the driver in the case that any unexpected traffic circumstance is detected. The next step is to develop systems capable not only of warning the driver but also of taking over control of the car to avoid a potential collision. In the present communication, a system capable of autonomously avoiding collisions in traffic jam situations is presented. First, a perception system was developed for urban situations—in which not only vehicles have to be considered, but also pedestrians and other non-motor-vehicles (NMV). It comprises a differential global positioning system (DGPS) and wireless communication for vehicle detection, and an ultrasound sensor for NMV detection. Then, the vehicle's actuators – brake and throttle pedals – were modified to permit autonomous control. Finally, a fuzzy logic controller was implemented capable of analyzing the information provided by the perception system and of sending control commands to the vehicle's actuators so as to avoid accidents. The feasibility of the integrated system was tested by mounting it in a commercial vehicle, with the results being encouraging.

Optical systems design using the SMS method and optimizations

Resumen El diseño de sistemas ópticos, entendido como un arte por algunos, como una ciencia por otros, se ha realizado durante siglos. Desde los egipcios hasta nuestros días los sistemas de formación de imagen han ido evolucionando así como las técnicas de diseño asociadas. Sin embargo ha sido en los últimos 50 años cuando las técnicas de diseño han experimentado su mayor desarrollo y evolución, debido, en parte, a la aparición de nuevas técnicas de fabricación y al desarrollo de ordenadores cada vez más potentes que han permitido el cálculo y análisis del trazado de rayos a través de los sistemas ópticos de forma rápida y eficiente. Esto ha propiciado que el diseño de sistemas ópticos evolucione desde los diseños desarrollados únicamente a partir de la óptica paraxial hasta lo modernos diseños realizados mediante la utilización de diferentes técnicas de optimización multiparamétrica. El principal problema con el que se encuentra el diseñador es que las diferentes técnicas de optimización necesitan partir de un diseño inicial el cual puede fijar las posibles soluciones. Dicho de otra forma, si el punto de inicio está lejos del mínimo global, o diseño óptimo para las condiciones establecidas, el diseño final puede ser un mínimo local cerca del punto de inicio y lejos del mínimo global. Este tipo de problemática ha llevado al desarrollo de sistemas globales de optimización que cada vez sean menos sensibles al punto de inicio de la optimización. Aunque si bien es cierto que es posible obtener buenos diseños a partir de este tipo de técnicas, se requiere de muchos intentos hasta llegar a la solución deseada, habiendo un entorno de incertidumbre durante todo el proceso, puesto que no está asegurado el que se llegue a la solución óptima. El método de las Superficies Múltiples Simultaneas (SMS), que nació como una herramienta de cálculo de concentradores anidólicos, se ha demostrado como una herramienta también capaz utilizarse para el diseño de sistemas ópticos formadores de imagen, aunque hasta la fecha se ha utilizado para el diseño puntual de sistemas de formación de imagen. Esta tesis tiene por objeto presentar el SMS como un método que puede ser utilizado de forma general para el diseño de cualquier sistema óptico de focal fija o v afocal con un aumento definido así como una herramienta que puede industrializarse para ayudar al diseñador a afrontar de forma sencilla el diseño de sistemas ópticos complejos. Esta tesis está estructurada en cinco capítulos: El capítulo 1, es un capítulo de fundamentos donde se presentan los conceptos fundamentales necesarios para que el lector, aunque no posea una gran base en óptica formadora de imagen, pueda entender los planteamientos y resultados que se presentan en el resto de capítulos El capitulo 2 aborda el problema de la optimización de sistemas ópticos, donde se presenta el método SMS como una herramienta idónea para obtener un punto de partida para el proceso de optimización. Mediante un ejemplo aplicado se demuestra la importancia del punto de partida utilizado en la solución final encontrada. Además en este capítulo se presentan diferentes técnicas que permiten la interpolación y optimización de las superficies obtenidas a partir de la aplicación del SMS. Aunque en esta tesis se trabajará únicamente utilizando el SMS2D, se presenta además un método para la interpolación y optimización de las nubes de puntos obtenidas a partir del SMS3D basado en funciones de base radial (RBF). En el capítulo 3 se presenta el diseño, fabricación y medidas de un objetivo catadióptrico panorámico diseñado para trabajar en la banda del infrarrojo lejano (8-12 μm) para aplicaciones de vigilancia perimetral. El objetivo presentado se diseña utilizando el método SMS para tres frentes de onda de entrada utilizando cuatro superficies. La potencia del método de diseño utilizado se hace evidente en la sencillez con la que este complejo sistema se diseña. Las imágenes presentadas demuestran cómo el prototipo desarrollado cumple a la perfección su propósito. El capítulo 4 aborda el problema del diseño de sistemas ópticos ultra compactos, se introduce el concepto de sistemas multicanal, como aquellos sistemas ópticos compuestos por una serie de canales que trabajan en paralelo. Este tipo de sistemas resultan particularmente idóneos para él diseño de sistemas afocales. Se presentan estrategias de diseño para sistemas multicanal tanto monocromáticos como policromáticos. Utilizando la novedosa técnica de diseño que en este capítulo se presenta el diseño de un telescopio de seis aumentos y medio. En el capítulo 5 se presenta una generalización del método SMS para rayos meridianos. En este capítulo se presenta el algoritmo que debe utilizarse para el diseño de cualquier sistema óptico de focal fija. La denominada optimización fase 1 se vi introduce en el algoritmo presentado de forma que mediante el cambio de las condiciones iníciales del diseño SMS que, aunque el diseño se realice para rayos meridianos, los rayos skew tengan un comportamiento similar. Para probar la potencia del algoritmo desarrollado se presenta un conjunto de diseños con diferente número de superficies. La estabilidad y potencia del algoritmo se hace evidente al conseguirse por primera vez el diseño de un sistema de seis superficies diseñado por SMS. vii Abstract The design of optical systems, considered an art by some and a science by others, has been developed for centuries. Imaging optical systems have been evolving since Ancient Egyptian times, as have design techniques. Nevertheless, the most important developments in design techniques have taken place over the past 50 years, in part due to the advances in manufacturing techniques and the development of increasingly powerful computers, which have enabled the fast and efficient calculation and analysis of ray tracing through optical systems. This has led to the design of optical systems evolving from designs developed solely from paraxial optics to modern designs created by using different multiparametric optimization techniques. The main problem the designer faces is that the different optimization techniques require an initial design which can set possible solutions as a starting point. In other words, if the starting point is far from the global minimum or optimal design for the set conditions, the final design may be a local minimum close to the starting point and far from the global minimum. This type of problem has led to the development of global optimization systems which are increasingly less sensitive to the starting point of the optimization process. Even though it is possible to obtain good designs from these types of techniques, many attempts are necessary to reach the desired solution. This is because of the uncertain environment due to the fact that there is no guarantee that the optimal solution will be obtained. The Simultaneous Multiple Surfaces (SMS) method, designed as a tool to calculate anidolic concentrators, has also proved useful for the design of image-forming optical systems, although until now it has occasionally been used for the design of imaging systems. This thesis aims to present the SMS method as a technique that can be used in general for the design of any optical system, whether with a fixed focal or an afocal with a defined magnification, and also as a tool that can be commercialized to help designers in the design of complex optical systems. The thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 establishes the basics by presenting the fundamental concepts which the reader needs to acquire, even if he/she doesn‟t have extensive knowledge in the field viii of image-forming optics, in order to understand the steps taken and the results obtained in the following chapters. Chapter 2 addresses the problem of optimizing optical systems. Here the SMS method is presented as an ideal tool to obtain a starting point for the optimization process. The importance of the starting point for the final solution is demonstrated through an example. Additionally, this chapter introduces various techniques for the interpolation and optimization of the surfaces obtained through the application of the SMS method. Even though in this thesis only the SMS2D method is used, we present a method for the interpolation and optimization of clouds of points obtained though the SMS3D method, based on radial basis functions (RBF). Chapter 3 presents the design, manufacturing and measurement processes of a catadioptric panoramic lens designed to work in the Long Wavelength Infrared (LWIR) (8-12 microns) for perimeter surveillance applications. The lens presented is designed by using the SMS method for three input wavefronts using four surfaces. The powerfulness of the design method used is revealed through the ease with which this complex system is designed. The images presented show how the prototype perfectly fulfills its purpose. Chapter 4 addresses the problem of designing ultra-compact optical systems. The concept of multi-channel systems, such as optical systems composed of a series of channels that work in parallel, is introduced. Such systems are especially suitable for the design of afocal systems. We present design strategies for multichannel systems, both monochromatic and polychromatic. A telescope designed with a magnification of six-and-a-half through the innovative technique exposed in this chapter is presented. Chapter 5 presents a generalization of the SMS method for meridian rays. The algorithm to be used for the design of any fixed focal optics is revealed. The optimization known as phase 1 optimization is inserted into the algorithm so that, by changing the initial conditions of the SMS design, the skew rays have a similar behavior, despite the design being carried out for meridian rays. To test the power of the developed algorithm, a set of designs with a different number of surfaces is presented. The stability and strength of the algorithm become apparent when the first design of a system with six surfaces if obtained through the SMS method.

Arquitectura de Control para la Conducción Autónoma de Vehículos en Entornos Urbanos y Autovías

Hoy en día, el desarrollo tecnológico en el campo de los sistemas inteligentes de transporte (ITS por sus siglas en inglés) ha permitido dotar a los vehículos con diversos sistemas de ayuda a la conducción (ADAS, del inglés advanced driver assistance system), mejorando la experiencia y seguridad de los pasajeros, en especial del conductor. La mayor parte de estos sistemas están pensados para advertir al conductor sobre ciertas situaciones de riesgo, como la salida involuntaria del carril o la proximidad de obstáculos en el camino. No obstante, también podemos encontrar sistemas que van un paso más allá y son capaces de cooperar con el conductor en el control del vehículo o incluso relegarlos de algunas tareas tediosas. Es en este último grupo donde se encuentran los sistemas de control electrónico de estabilidad (ESP - Electronic Stability Program), el antibloqueo de frenos (ABS - Anti-lock Braking System), el control de crucero (CC - Cruise Control) y los más recientes sistemas de aparcamiento asistido. Continuando con esta línea de desarrollo, el paso siguiente consiste en la supresión del conductor humano, desarrollando sistemas que sean capaces de conducir un vehículo de forma autónoma y con un rendimiento superior al del conductor. En este trabajo se presenta, en primer lugar, una arquitectura de control para la automatización de vehículos. Esta se compone de distintos componentes de hardware y software, agrupados de acuerdo a su función principal. El diseño de la arquitectura parte del trabajo previo desarrollado por el Programa AUTOPIA, aunque introduce notables aportaciones en cuanto a la eficiencia, robustez y escalabilidad del sistema. Ahondando un poco más en detalle, debemos resaltar el desarrollo de un algoritmo de localización basado en enjambres de partículas. Este está planteado como un método de filtrado y fusión de la información obtenida a partir de los distintos sensores embarcados en el vehículo, entre los que encontramos un receptor GPS (Global Positioning System), unidades de medición inercial (IMU – Inertial Measurement Unit) e información tomada directamente de los sensores embarcados por el fabricante, como la velocidad de las ruedas y posición del volante. Gracias a este método se ha conseguido resolver el problema de la localización, indispensable para el desarrollo de sistemas de conducción autónoma. Continuando con el trabajo de investigación, se ha estudiado la viabilidad de la aplicación de técnicas de aprendizaje y adaptación al diseño de controladores para el vehículo. Como punto de partida se emplea el método de Q-learning para la generación de un controlador borroso lateral sin ningún tipo de conocimiento previo. Posteriormente se presenta un método de ajuste on-line para la adaptación del control longitudinal ante perturbaciones impredecibles del entorno, como lo son los cambios en la inclinación del camino, fricción de las ruedas o peso de los ocupantes. Para finalizar, se presentan los resultados obtenidos durante un experimento de conducción autónoma en carreteras reales, el cual se llevó a cabo en el mes de Junio de 2012 desde la población de San Lorenzo de El Escorial hasta las instalaciones del Centro de Automática y Robótica (CAR) en Arganda del Rey. El principal objetivo tras esta demostración fue validar el funcionamiento, robustez y capacidad de la arquitectura propuesta para afrontar el problema de la conducción autónoma, bajo condiciones mucho más reales a las que se pueden alcanzar en las instalaciones de prueba. ABSTRACT Nowadays, the technological advances in the Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) field have led the development of several driving assistance systems (ADAS). These solutions are designed to improve the experience and security of all the passengers, especially the driver. For most of these systems, the main goal is to warn drivers about unexpected circumstances leading to risk situations such as involuntary lane departure or proximity to other vehicles. However, other ADAS go a step further, being able to cooperate with the driver in the control of the vehicle, or even overriding it on some tasks. Examples of this kind of systems are the anti-lock braking system (ABS), cruise control (CC) and the recently commercialised assisted parking systems. Within this research line, the next step is the development of systems able to replace the human drivers, improving the control and therefore, the safety and reliability of the vehicles. First of all, this dissertation presents a control architecture design for autonomous driving. It is made up of several hardware and software components, grouped according to their main function. The design of this architecture is based on the previous works carried out by the AUTOPIA Program, although notable improvements have been made regarding the efficiency, robustness and scalability of the system. It is also remarkable the work made on the development of a location algorithm for vehicles. The proposal is based on the emulation of the behaviour of biological swarms and its performance is similar to the well-known particle filters. The developed method combines information obtained from different sensors, including GPS, inertial measurement unit (IMU), and data from the original vehicle’s sensors on-board. Through this filtering algorithm the localization problem is properly managed, which is critical for the development of autonomous driving systems. The work deals also with the fuzzy control tuning system, a very time consuming task when done manually. An analysis of learning and adaptation techniques for the development of different controllers has been made. First, the Q-learning –a reinforcement learning method– has been applied to the generation of a lateral fuzzy controller from scratch. Subsequently, the development of an adaptation method for longitudinal control is presented. With this proposal, a final cruise control controller is able to deal with unpredictable environment disturbances, such as road slope, wheel’s friction or even occupants’ weight. As a testbed for the system, an autonomous driving experiment on real roads is presented. This experiment was carried out on June 2012, driving from San Lorenzo de El Escorial up to the Center for Automation and Robotics (CAR) facilities in Arganda del Rey. The main goal of the demonstration was validating the performance, robustness and viability of the proposed architecture to deal with the problem of autonomous driving under more demanding conditions than those achieved on closed test tracks.

Localization and Tracking in Energy-Constrained Networks with Dynamic Connectivity

Systems used for target localization, such as goods, individuals, or animals, commonly rely on operational means to meet the final application demands. However, what would happen if some means were powered up randomly by harvesting systems? And what if those devices not randomly powered had their duty cycles restricted? Under what conditions would such an operation be tolerable in localization services? What if the references provided by nodes in a tracking problem were distorted? Moreover, there is an underlying topic common to the previous questions regarding the transfer of conceptual models to reality in field tests: what challenges are faced upon deploying a localization network that integrates energy harvesting modules? The application scenario of the system studied is a traditional herding environment of semi domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in northern Scandinavia. In these conditions, information on approximate locations of reindeer is as important as environmental preservation. Herders also need cost-effective devices capable of operating unattended in, sometimes, extreme weather conditions. The analyses developed are worthy not only for the specific application environment presented, but also because they may serve as an approach to performance of navigation systems in absence of reasonably accurate references like the ones of the Global Positioning System (GPS). A number of energy-harvesting solutions, like thermal and radio-frequency harvesting, do not commonly provide power beyond one milliwatt. When they do, battery buffers may be needed (as it happens with solar energy) which may raise costs and make systems more dependent on environmental temperatures. In general, given our problem, a harvesting system is needed that be capable of providing energy bursts of, at least, some milliwatts. Many works on localization problems assume that devices have certain capabilities to determine unknown locations based on range-based techniques or fingerprinting which cannot be assumed in the approach considered herein. The system presented is akin to range-free techniques, but goes to the extent of considering very low node densities: most range-free techniques are, therefore, not applicable. Animal localization, in particular, uses to be supported by accurate devices such as GPS collars which deplete batteries in, maximum, a few days. Such short-life solutions are not particularly desirable in the framework considered. In tracking, the challenge may times addressed aims at attaining high precision levels from complex reliable hardware and thorough processing techniques. One of the challenges in this Thesis is the use of equipment with just part of its facilities in permanent operation, which may yield high input noise levels in the form of distorted reference points. The solution presented integrates a kinetic harvesting module in some nodes which are expected to be a majority in the network. These modules are capable of providing power bursts of some milliwatts which suffice to meet node energy demands. The usage of harvesting modules in the aforementioned conditions makes the system less dependent on environmental temperatures as no batteries are used in nodes with harvesters--it may be also an advantage in economic terms. There is a second kind of nodes. They are battery powered (without kinetic energy harvesters), and are, therefore, dependent on temperature and battery replacements. In addition, their operation is constrained by duty cycles in order to extend node lifetime and, consequently, their autonomy. There is, in turn, a third type of nodes (hotspots) which can be static or mobile. They are also battery-powered, and are used to retrieve information from the network so that it is presented to users. The system operational chain starts at the kinetic-powered nodes broadcasting their own identifier. If an identifier is received at a battery-powered node, the latter stores it for its records. Later, as the recording node meets a hotspot, its full record of detections is transferred to the hotspot. Every detection registry comprises, at least, a node identifier and the position read from its GPS module by the battery-operated node previously to detection. The characteristics of the system presented make the aforementioned operation own certain particularities which are also studied. First, identifier transmissions are random as they depend on movements at kinetic modules--reindeer movements in our application. Not every movement suffices since it must overcome a certain energy threshold. Second, identifier transmissions may not be heard unless there is a battery-powered node in the surroundings. Third, battery-powered nodes do not poll continuously their GPS module, hence localization errors rise even more. Let's recall at this point that such behavior is tight to the aforementioned power saving policies to extend node lifetime. Last, some time is elapsed between the instant an identifier random transmission is detected and the moment the user is aware of such a detection: it takes some time to find a hotspot. Tracking is posed as a problem of a single kinetically-powered target and a population of battery-operated nodes with higher densities than before in localization. Since the latter provide their approximate positions as reference locations, the study is again focused on assessing the impact of such distorted references on performance. Unlike in localization, distance-estimation capabilities based on signal parameters are assumed in this problem. Three variants of the Kalman filter family are applied in this context: the regular Kalman filter, the alpha-beta filter, and the unscented Kalman filter. The study enclosed hereafter comprises both field tests and simulations. Field tests were used mainly to assess the challenges related to power supply and operation in extreme conditions as well as to model nodes and some aspects of their operation in the application scenario. These models are the basics of the simulations developed later. The overall system performance is analyzed according to three metrics: number of detections per kinetic node, accuracy, and latency. The links between these metrics and the operational conditions are also discussed and characterized statistically. Subsequently, such statistical characterization is used to forecast performance figures given specific operational parameters. In tracking, also studied via simulations, nonlinear relationships are found between accuracy and duty cycles and cluster sizes of battery-operated nodes. The solution presented may be more complex in terms of network structure than existing solutions based on GPS collars. However, its main gain lies on taking advantage of users' error tolerance to reduce costs and become more environmentally friendly by diminishing the potential amount of batteries that can be lost. Whether it is applicable or not depends ultimately on the conditions and requirements imposed by users' needs and operational environments, which is, as it has been explained, one of the topics of this Thesis.

PDR with a foot-mounted IMU and ramp detection

The localization of persons in indoor environments is nowadays an open problem. There are partial solutions based on the deployment of a network of sensors (Local Positioning Systems or LPS). Other solutions only require the installation of an inertial sensor on the person’s body (Pedestrian Dead-Reckoning or PDR). PDR solutions integrate the signals coming from an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), which usually contains 3 accelerometers and 3 gyroscopes. The main problem of PDR is the accumulation of positioning errors due to the drift caused by the noise in the sensors. This paper presents a PDR solution that incorporates a drift correction method based on detecting the access ramps usually found in buildings. The ramp correction method is implemented over a PDR framework that uses an Inertial Navigation algorithm (INS) and an IMU attached to the person’s foot. Unlike other approaches that use external sensors to correct the drift error, we only use one IMU on the foot. To detect a ramp, the slope of the terrain on which the user is walking, and the change in height sensed when moving forward, are estimated from the IMU. After detection, the ramp is checked for association with one of the existing in a database. For each associated ramp, a position correction is fed into the Kalman Filter in order to refine the INS-PDR solution. Drift-free localization is achieved with positioning errors below 2 meters for 1,000-meter-long routes in a building with a few ramps.

Error estimation for the linearized auto-localization algorithm

The Linearized Auto-Localization (LAL) algorithm estimates the position of beacon nodes in Local Positioning Systems (LPSs), using only the distance measurements to a mobile node whose position is also unknown. The LAL algorithm calculates the inter-beacon distances, used for the estimation of the beacons’ positions, from the linearized trilateration equations. In this paper we propose a method to estimate the propagation of the errors of the inter-beacon distances obtained with the LAL algorithm, based on a first order Taylor approximation of the equations. Since the method depends on such approximation, a confidence parameter τ is defined to measure the reliability of the estimated error. Field evaluations showed that by applying this information to an improved weighted-based auto-localization algorithm (WLAL), the standard deviation of the inter-beacon distances can be improved by more than 30% on average with respect to the original LAL method.

Positional Accuracy in Smart-Phones and Its Effect on LBS Applications.

Location-based services (LBS) highly rely on the location of the mobile user in order to provide the service tailored to that location. This location is calculated differently depending on the technology available in the used mobile device. No matter which technology is used, the location will never be calculated 100% correctly; instead there will always be a margin of error generated during the calculation, which is referred to as positional accuracy. This research has reviewed the eight most common positioning technologies available in the major current smart-phones and assessed their positional accuracy with respect to its usage by LBS applications. Given the vast majority of these applications, this research classified them into thirteen categories, and these categories were also classified depending on their level criticality as low, medium, or high critical, and whether they function indoor or outdoor. The accuracies of different positioning technologies are compared to these two criteria. Low critical outdoor and high critical indoor applications were found technologically covered; high and medium critical outdoor ones weren?t fully resolved. Finally three potential solutions are suggested to be implemented in future smartphones to resolve this technological gap: Real-Time Kinematics Global Positioning System (RTK GPS), terrestrial transmitters, and combination of Wireless Sensors Network and Radio Frequency Identification (WSN-RFID).

Metodología para ejecución y control de calidad para ortofotos, mediante combinación de sensor digital con LIDAR en zonas rurales

La utilización de una cámara fotogramétrica digital redunda en el aumento demostrable de calidad radiométrica debido a la mejor relación señal/ruido y a los 12 bits de resolución radiométrica por cada pixel de la imagen. Simultáneamente se consigue un notable ahorro de tiempo y coste gracias a la eliminación de las fases de revelado y escaneado de la película y al aumento de las horas de vuelo por día. De otra parte, el sistema láser aerotransportado (LIDAR - Light Detection and Ranging) es un sistema con un elevado rendimiento y rentabilidad para la captura de datos de elevaciones para generar un modelo digital del terreno (MDT) y también de los objetos sobre el terreno, permitiendo así alcanzar alta precisión y densidad de información. Tanto el sistema LIDAR como el sistema de cámara fotogramétrica digital se combinan con otras técnicas bien conocidas: el sistema de posicionamiento global (GPS - Global Positioning System) y la orientación de la unidad de medida inercial (IMU - Inertial Measure Units), que permiten reducir o eliminar el apoyo de campo y realizar la orientación directa de los sensores utilizando datos de efemérides precisas de los satélites. Combinando estas tecnologías, se va a proponer y poner en práctica una metodología para generación automática de ortofotos en países de América del Sur. Analizando la precisión de dichas ortofotos comparándolas con fuente de mayor exactitud y con las especificaciones técnicas del Plan Nacional de Ortofotografía Aérea (PNOA) se determinará la viabilidad de que dicha metodología se pueda aplicar a zonas rurales. ABSTRACT Using a digital photogrammetric camera results in a demonstrable increase of the radiometric quality due to a better improved signal/noise ratio and the radiometric resolution of 12 bits per pixel of the image. Simultaneously a significant saving of time and money is achieved thanks to the elimination of the developing and film scanning stages, as well as to the increase of flying hours per day. On the other hand, airborne laser system Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a system with high performance and yield for the acquisition of elevation data in order to generate a digital terrain model (DTM), as well as objects on the ground which allows to achieve high accuracy and data density. Both the LIDAR and the digital photogrammetric camera system are combined with other well known techniques: global positioning system (GPS) and inertial measurement unit (IMU) orientation, which are currently in a mature evolutionary stage, which allow to reduce and/or remove field support and perform a direct guidance of sensors using specific historic data from the satellites. By combining these technologies, a methodology for automatic generation of orthophotos in South American countries will be proposed and implemented. Analyzing the accuracy of these orthophotos comparing them with more accurate sources and technical specifications of the National Aerial Orthophoto (PNOA), the viability of whether this methodology should be applied to rural areas, will be determined.

Auscultación de presas de hormigón con láser escáner terrestre y modelización de las deformaciones del paramento

Se está produciendo en la geodesia un cambio de paradigma en la concepción de los modelos digitales del terreno, pasando de diseñar el modelo con el menor número de puntos posibles a hacerlo con cientos de miles o millones de puntos. Este cambio ha sido consecuencia de la introducción de nuevas tecnologías como el escáner láser, la interferometría radar y el tratamiento de imágenes. La rápida aceptación de estas nuevas tecnologías se debe principalmente a la gran velocidad en la toma de datos, a la accesibilidad por no precisar de prisma y al alto grado de detalle de los modelos. Los métodos topográficos clásicos se basan en medidas discretas de puntos que considerados en su conjunto forman un modelo; su precisión se deriva de la precisión en la toma singular de estos puntos. La tecnología láser escáner terrestre (TLS) supone una aproximación diferente para la generación del modelo del objeto observado. Las nubes de puntos, producto del escaneo con TLS, pasan a ser tratadas en su conjunto mediante análisis de áreas, de forma que ahora el modelo final no es el resultado de una agregación de puntos sino la de la mejor superficie que se adapta a las nubes de puntos. Al comparar precisiones en la captura de puntos singulares realizados con métodos taquimétricos y equipos TLS la inferioridad de estos últimos es clara; sin embargo es en el tratamiento de las nubes de puntos, con los métodos de análisis basados en áreas, se han obtenido precisiones aceptables y se ha podido considerar plenamente la incorporación de esta tecnología en estudios de deformaciones y movimientos de estructuras. Entre las aplicaciones del TLS destacan las de registro del patrimonio, registro de las fases en la construcción de plantas industriales y estructuras, atestados de accidentes y monitorización de movimientos del terreno y deformaciones de estructuras. En la auscultación de presas, comparado con la monitorización de puntos concretos dentro, en coronación o en el paramento de la presa, disponer de un modelo continuo del paramento aguas abajo de la presa abre la posibilidad de introducir los métodos de análisis de deformaciones de superficies y la creación de modelos de comportamiento que mejoren la comprensión y previsión de sus movimientos. No obstante, la aplicación de la tecnología TLS en la auscultación de presas debe considerarse como un método complementario a los existentes. Mientras que los péndulos y la reciente técnica basada en el sistema de posicionamiento global diferencial (DGPS) dan una información continua de los movimientos de determinados puntos de la presa, el TLS permite ver la evolución estacional y detectar posibles zonas problemáticas en todo el paramento. En este trabajo se analizan las características de la tecnología TLS y los parámetros que intervienen en la precisión final de los escaneos. Se constata la necesidad de utilizar equipos basados en la medida directa del tiempo de vuelo, también llamados pulsados, para distancias entre 100 m y 300 m Se estudia la aplicación del TLS a la modelización de estructuras y paramentos verticales. Se analizan los factores que influyen en la precisión final, como el registro de nubes, tipo de dianas y el efecto conjunto del ángulo y la distancia de escaneo. Finalmente, se hace una comparación de los movimientos dados por los péndulos directos de una presa con los obtenidos del análisis de las nubes de puntos correspondientes a varias campañas de escaneos de la misma presa. Se propone y valida el empleo de gráficos patrón para relacionar las variables precisión o exactitud con los factores distancia y ángulo de escaneo en el diseño de trabajos de campo. Se expone su aplicación en la preparación del trabajo de campo para la realización de una campaña de escaneos dirigida al control de movimientos de una presa y se realizan recomendaciones para la aplicación de la técnica TLS a grandes estructuras. Se ha elaborado el gráfico patrón de un equipo TLS concreto de alcance medio. Para ello se hicieron dos ensayos de campo en condiciones reales de trabajo, realizando escaneos en todo el rango de distancias y ángulos de escaneo del equipo. Se analizan dos métodos para obtener la precisión en la modelización de paramentos y la detección de movimientos de estos: el método del “plano de mejor ajuste” y el método de la “deformación simulada”. Por último, se presentan los resultados de la comparación de los movimientos estacionales de una presa arco-gravedad entre los registrados con los péndulos directos y los obtenidos a partir de los escaneos realizados con un TLS. Los resultados muestran diferencias de milímetros, siendo el mejor de ellos del orden de un milímetro. Se explica la metodología utilizada y se hacen consideraciones respecto a la densidad de puntos de las nubes y al tamaño de las mallas de triángulos. A shift of paradigm in the conception of the survey digital models is taking place in geodesy, moving from designing a model with the fewer possible number of points to models of hundreds of thousand or million points. This change has happened because of the introduction of new technologies like the laser scanner, the interferometry radar and the processing of images. The fast acceptance of these new technologies has been due mainly to the great speed getting the data, to the accessibility as reflectorless technique, and to the high degree of detail of the models. Classic survey methods are based on discreet measures of points that, considered them as a whole, form a model; the precision of the model is then derived from the precision measuring the single points. The terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) technology supposes a different approach to the model generation of the observed object. Point cloud, the result of a TLS scan, must be treated as a whole, by means of area-based analysis; so, the final model is not an aggregation of points but the one resulting from the best surface that fits with the point cloud. Comparing precisions between the one resulting from the capture of singular points made with tachometric measurement methods and with TLS equipment, the inferiority of this last one is clear; but it is in the treatment of the point clouds, using area-based analysis methods, when acceptable precisions have been obtained and it has been possible to consider the incorporation of this technology for monitoring structures deformations. Among TLS applications it have to be emphasized those of registry of the cultural heritage, stages registry during construction of industrial plants and structures, police statement of accidents and monitorization of land movements and structures deformations. Compared with the classical dam monitoring, approach based on the registry of a set of points, the fact having a continuous model of the downstream face allows the possibility of introducing deformation analysis methods and behavior models that would improve the understanding and forecast of dam movements. However, the application of TLS technology for dam monitoring must be considered like a complementary method with the existing ones. Pendulums and recently the differential global positioning system (DGPS) give a continuous information of the movements of certain points of the dam, whereas TLS allows following its seasonal evolution and to detect damaged zones of the dam. A review of the TLS technology characteristics and the factors affecting the final precision of the scanning data is done. It is stated the need of selecting TLS based on the direct time of flight method, also called pulsed, for scanning distances between 100m and 300m. Modelling of structures and vertical walls is studied. Factors that influence in the final precision, like the registry of point clouds, target types, and the combined effect of scanning distance and angle of incidence are analyzed. Finally, a comparison among the movements given by the direct pendulums of a dam and the ones obtained from the analysis of point clouds is done. A new approach to obtain a complete map-type plot of the precisions of TLS equipment based on the direct measurement of time of flight method at midrange distances is presented. Test were developed in field-like conditions, similar to dam monitoring and other civil engineering works. Taking advantage of graphic semiological techniques, a “distance - angle of incidence” map based was designed and evaluated for field-like conditions. A map-type plot was designed combining isolines with sized and grey scale points, proportional to the precision values they represent. Precisions under different field conditions were compared with specifications. For this purpose, point clouds were evaluated under two approaches: the standar "plane-of-best-fit" and the proposed "simulated deformation”, that showed improved performance. These results lead to a discussion and recommendations about optimal TLS operation in civil engineering works. Finally, results of the comparison of seasonal movements of an arc-gravity dam between the registered by the direct pendulums ant the obtained from the TLS scans, are shown. The results show differences of millimeters, being the best around one millimeter. The used methodology is explained and considerations with respect to the point cloud density and to the size of triangular meshes are done.

Análisis de algoritmos para posicionamiento de aeronaves mediante respuestas SSR utilizando recepción omnidireccional

El transporte aéreo constituye un sector estratégico para el crecimiento económico de cualquier país. El sistema de gestión de tráfico aéreo ATM tiene como objetivo el movimiento seguro y eficiente de las aeronaves dentro del espacio aéreo y de los aeropuertos, siendo la seguridad, en la fase táctica, gestionada por el servicio de control de la circulación aérea. Mediante los procesos de control el tráfico aéreo es vigilado a través de sensores, regulado y guiado de forma organizada y segura. Es precisamente sobre la vigilancia donde se enfoca el contenido de la tesis, en el desarrollo de nuevos conceptos que proporcionen información de vigilancia de ‘bajo coste’ basados en las señales existentes proporcionadas por la infraestructura actual de radar secundario y por los sistemas de posicionamiento basados en satélite que utiliza la ADS-B. El conocimiento y acceso en tiempo real a las trayectorias de las aeronaves es un elemento de valor añadido no sólo para la provisión de los servicios de control de tránsito aéreo, sino para todos los actores del transporte aéreo o de la investigación, siendo uno de los elementos clave en el concepto operacional de los dos grandes proyectos tecnológicos, SESAR en Europa y NextGen en EE.UU.. En las últimas décadas el control de la circulación aérea en espacios aéreos de media y alta densidad de tráfico se ha basado en tecnologías complejas que requieren importantes infraestructuras como son el radar primario de vigilancia (PSR) y el radar secundario de vigilancia (SSR). La filosofía de los programas SESAR y NextGen siguiendo las directrices de la OACI es la de alejarse de las tecnologías basadas en tierra para evolucionar hacia nuevas tecnologías más dinámicas basadas en satélite como la ADS-B. Pero hasta que la implementación y operación de la ADS-B sea completa, existirá un período de transición que implica la coexistencia de aeronaves equipadas o no con ADS-B. El objetivo de la presente Tesis es determinar las metodologías y algoritmos más adecuados para poder hibridar las dos tecnologías descritas anteriormente, utilizando para ello un receptor de bajo coste con antena estática omnidireccional, que analice todas las señales presentes en el canal que comparten el SSR y ADS-B. Mediante esta hibridación se podrá obtener la posición de cualquier aeronave que transmita respuestas a interrogaciones SSR, en cualquiera de sus modos de trabajo, o directamente mensajes de posición ADS-B. Para desarrollar los algoritmos propuestos, además del hardware correspondiente, se han utilizado las aplicaciones LabVIEW para funciones de adquisición de datos reales, y el software MATLAB® para el desarrollo de algoritmos y análisis de datos. La validación de resultados se ha realizado mediante los propios mensajes de posición ADS-B y a través de las trazas radar proporcionadas por la entidad pública empresarial ENAIRE. La técnica desarrollada es autónoma, y no ha requerido de ninguna otra entrada que no sea la recepción omnidireccional de las señales. Sin embargo para la validación de resultados se ha utilizado información pública de las ubicaciones de la red de estaciones SSR desplegadas sobre territorio español y portugués y trazas radar. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran, que con técnicas basadas en superficies de situación definidas por los tiempos de llegada de las respuestas, es posible determinar con una precisión aceptable la posición de las estaciones SSR y la posición de cualquier aeronave que responda mediante el Modo A a éstas. ABSTRACT Air transport is a strategic sector for the economic growth of any country. The air traffic management system (ATM) aims at the safe and efficient movement of aircraft while operating within the airspace and airports, where safety, in the tactical phase, is managed by the air traffic control services. Through the air traffic control processes, aircraft are monitored by sensors, regulated and guided in an organized and safe manner. It is precisely on surveillance where this thesis is focused, developing new concepts that provide a 'low cost' surveillance information based on existing signals provided by currently secondary radar infrastructure and satellite-based positioning systems used by ADS-B. Having a deeper knowledge and a real-time access to the trajectories of the aircraft, is an element of added value not only for the provision of air traffic control services, but also for all air transport or research actors. This is one of the key elements in the operational concept proposed by the two large scale existing technological projects, SESAR in Europe and NextGen in the US. In recent decades, air traffic control in medium and high traffic density areas has been based on complex technologies requiring major infrastructures, such as the primary surveillance radar (PSR) and secondary surveillance radar (SSR). The philosophy of SESAR and NextGen programs, both following the guidelines of ICAO, is to move away from land-based technologies and evolving into some new and more dynamic satellite-based technologies such as ADS-B. Nevertheless, until the ADS-B implementation and operation is fully achieved, there will be a transitional period where aircraft with and without ADS-B equipment will have to coexist. The main objective of this thesis is to determine those methodologies and algorithms which are considered more appropriate to hybridize those two technologies, by using a low cost omnidirectional receiver, which analyzes all signals on the SSR and ADS-B shared channel. Through this hybridization, it is possible to obtain the position of any aircraft answering the SSR interrogations, in any of its modes of operation, or through the emission of ADS-B messages. To develop the proposed algorithms, LabVIEW application has been used for real-time data acquisition, as well as MATLAB software for algorithm development and data analysis, together with the corresponding hardware. The validation of results was performed using the ADS-B position messages and radar tracks provided by the Public Corporate Entity ENAIRE The developed technique is autonomous, and it does not require any other input other than the omnidirectional signal reception. However, for the validation of results, not only radar records have been used, but also public information regarding the position of SSR stations spread throughout the Spanish and Portuguese territory. The results show that using techniques based in the definition of positioning surfaces defined by the responses’ times of arrival, it is possible to determine with an acceptable level of accuracy both the position of the SSR stations as well as the position of any aircraft which transmits Mode A responses.

Global optimization of solar thermophotovoltaic systems

n this paper, we present a theoretical model based on the detailed balance theory of solar thermophotovoltaic systems comprising multijunction photovoltaic cells, a sunlight concentrator and spectrally selective surfaces. The full system has been defined by means of 2n + 8 variables (being n the number of sub-cells of the multijunction cell). These variables are as follows: the sunlight concentration factor, the absorber cut-off energy, the emitter-to-absorber area ratio, the emitter cut-off energy, the band-gap energy(ies) and voltage(s) of the sub-cells, the reflectivity of the cells' back-side reflector, the emitter-to-cell and cell-to-cell view factors and the emitter-to-cell area ratio. We have used this model for carrying out a multi-variable system optimization by means of a multidimensional direct-search algorithm. This analysis allows to find the set of system variables whose combined effects results in the maximum overall system efficiency. From this analysis, we have seen that multijunction cells are excellent candidates to enhance the system efficiency and the electrical power density. Particularly, multijunction cells report great benefits for systems with a notable presence of optical losses, which are unavoidable in practical systems. Also, we have seen that the use of spectrally selective absorbers, rather than black-body absorbers, allows to achieve higher system efficiencies for both lower concentration and lower emitter-to-absorber area ratio. Finally, we have seen that sun-to-electricity conversion efficiencies above 30% and electrical power densities above 50 W/cm2 are achievable for this kind of systems.

Bayesian scene analysis for multi-camera 3D tracking and camera positioning

Los sistemas de seguimiento mono-cámara han demostrado su notable capacidad para el análisis de trajectorias de objectos móviles y para monitorización de escenas de interés; sin embargo, tanto su robustez como sus posibilidades en cuanto a comprensión semántica de la escena están fuertemente limitadas por su naturaleza local y monocular, lo que los hace insuficientes para aplicaciones realistas de videovigilancia. El objetivo de esta tesis es la extensión de las posibilidades de los sistemas de seguimiento de objetos móviles para lograr un mayor grado de robustez y comprensión de la escena. La extensión propuesta se divide en dos direcciones separadas. La primera puede considerarse local, ya que está orientada a la mejora y enriquecimiento de las posiciones estimadas para los objetos móviles observados directamente por las cámaras del sistema; dicha extensión se logra mediante el desarrollo de un sistema multi-cámara de seguimiento 3D, capaz de proporcionar consistentemente las posiciones 3D de múltiples objetos a partir de las observaciones capturadas por un conjunto de sensores calibrados y con campos de visión solapados. La segunda extensión puede considerarse global, dado que su objetivo consiste en proporcionar un contexto global para relacionar las observaciones locales realizadas por una cámara con una escena de mucho mayor tamaño; para ello se propone un sistema automático de localización de cámaras basado en las trayectorias observadas de varios objetos móviles y en un mapa esquemático de la escena global monitorizada. Ambas líneas de investigación se tratan utilizando, como marco común, técnicas de estimación bayesiana: esta elección está justificada por la versatilidad y flexibilidad proporcionada por dicho marco estadístico, que permite la combinación natural de múltiples fuentes de información sobre los parámetros a estimar, así como un tratamiento riguroso de la incertidumbre asociada a las mismas mediante la inclusión de modelos de observación específicamente diseñados. Además, el marco seleccionado abre grandes posibilidades operacionales, puesto que permite la creación de diferentes métodos numéricos adaptados a las necesidades y características específicas de distintos problemas tratados. El sistema de seguimiento 3D con múltiples cámaras propuesto está específicamente diseñado para permitir descripciones esquemáticas de las medidas realizadas individualmente por cada una de las cámaras del sistema: esta elección de diseño, por tanto, no asume ningún algoritmo específico de detección o seguimiento 2D en ninguno de los sensores de la red, y hace que el sistema propuesto sea aplicable a redes reales de vigilancia con capacidades limitadas tanto en términos de procesamiento como de transmision. La combinación robusta de las observaciones capturadas individualmente por las cámaras, ruidosas, incompletas y probablemente contaminadas por falsas detecciones, se basa en un metodo de asociación bayesiana basado en geometría y color: los resultados de dicha asociación permiten el seguimiento 3D de los objetos de la escena mediante el uso de un filtro de partículas. El sistema de fusión de observaciones propuesto tiene, como principales características, una gran precisión en términos de localización 3D de objetos, y una destacable capacidad de recuperación tras eventuales errores debidos a un número insuficiente de datos de entrada. El sistema automático de localización de cámaras se basa en la observación de múltiples objetos móviles y un mapa esquemático de las áreas transitables del entorno monitorizado para inferir la posición absoluta de dicho sensor. Para este propósito, se propone un novedoso marco bayesiano que combina modelos dinámicos inducidos por el mapa en los objetos móviles presentes en la escena con las trayectorias observadas por la cámara, lo que representa un enfoque nunca utilizado en la literatura existente. El sistema de localización se divide en dos sub-tareas diferenciadas, debido a que cada una de estas tareas requiere del diseño de algoritmos específicos de muestreo para explotar en profundidad las características del marco desarrollado: por un lado, análisis de la ambigüedad del caso específicamente tratado y estimación aproximada de la localización de la cámara, y por otro, refinado de la localización de la cámara. El sistema completo, diseñado y probado para el caso específico de localización de cámaras en entornos de tráfico urbano, podría tener aplicación también en otros entornos y sensores de diferentes modalidades tras ciertas adaptaciones. ABSTRACT Mono-camera tracking systems have proved their capabilities for moving object trajectory analysis and scene monitoring, but their robustness and semantic possibilities are strongly limited by their local and monocular nature and are often insufficient for realistic surveillance applications. This thesis is aimed at extending the possibilities of moving object tracking systems to a higher level of scene understanding. The proposed extension comprises two separate directions. The first one is local, since is aimed at enriching the inferred positions of the moving objects within the area of the monitored scene directly covered by the cameras of the system; this task is achieved through the development of a multi-camera system for robust 3D tracking, able to provide 3D tracking information of multiple simultaneous moving objects from the observations reported by a set of calibrated cameras with semi-overlapping fields of view. The second extension is global, as is aimed at providing local observations performed within the field of view of one camera with a global context relating them to a much larger scene; to this end, an automatic camera positioning system relying only on observed object trajectories and a scene map is designed. The two lines of research in this thesis are addressed using Bayesian estimation as a general unifying framework. Its suitability for these two applications is justified by the flexibility and versatility of that stochastic framework, which allows the combination of multiple sources of information about the parameters to estimate in a natural and elegant way, addressing at the same time the uncertainty associated to those sources through the inclusion of models designed to this end. In addition, it opens multiple possibilities for the creation of different numerical methods for achieving satisfactory and efficient practical solutions to each addressed application. The proposed multi-camera 3D tracking method is specifically designed to work on schematic descriptions of the observations performed by each camera of the system: this choice allows the use of unspecific off-the-shelf 2D detection and/or tracking subsystems running independently at each sensor, and makes the proposal suitable for real surveillance networks with moderate computational and transmission capabilities. The robust combination of such noisy, incomplete and possibly unreliable schematic descriptors relies on a Bayesian association method, based on geometry and color, whose results allow the tracking of the targets in the scene with a particle filter. The main features exhibited by the proposal are, first, a remarkable accuracy in terms of target 3D positioning, and second, a great recovery ability after tracking losses due to insufficient input data. The proposed system for visual-based camera self-positioning uses the observations of moving objects and a schematic map of the passable areas of the environment to infer the absolute sensor position. To this end, a new Bayesian framework combining trajectory observations and map-induced dynamic models for moving objects is designed, which represents an approach to camera positioning never addressed before in the literature. This task is divided into two different sub-tasks, setting ambiguity analysis and approximate position estimation, on the one hand, and position refining, on the other, since they require the design of specific sampling algorithms to correctly exploit the discriminative features of the developed framework. This system, designed for camera positioning and demonstrated in urban traffic environments, can also be applied to different environments and sensors of other modalities after certain required adaptations.