A puzzling solar cell structure: an exercise to get insight on intermediate band solar cells

We introduce one trivial but puzzling solar cell structure. It consists of a high bandgap pn junction (top cell) grown on a substrate of lower bandgap. Let us assume, for example, that the bandgap of the top cell is 1.85 eV (Al 0.3Ga 0.7As) and the bandgap of the substrate is 1.42 eV (GaAs). Is the open-circuit of the top cell limited to 1.42 V or to 1.85 V? If the answer is ldquo1.85 Vrdquo we could then make the mind experiment in which we illuminate the cell with 1.5 eV photons (notice these photons would only be absorbed in the substrate). If we admit that these photons can generate photocurrent, then because we have also admitted that the voltage is limited to 1.85 V, it might be possible that the electron-hole pairs generated by these photons were extracted at 1.6 V for example. However, if we do so, the principles of thermodynamics could be violated because we would be extracting more energy from the photon than the energy it initially had. How can we then solve this puzzle?

An approach to stakeholders involvement in the preparedness for nuclear and radiological emergency response & recovery in Spain

The elaboration of a generic decision-making strategy to address the evolution of an emergency situation, from the stages of response to recovery, and including a planning stage, can facilitate timely, effective and consistent decision making by the response organisations at every level within the emergency management structure and between countries, helping to ensure optimal protection of health, environment, and society. The degree of involvement of stakeholders in this process is a key strategic element for strengthening the local preparedness and response and can help a successful countermeasures strategy. A significant progress was made with the multi-national European project EURANOS (2004-2009) which brought together best practice, knowledge and technology to enhance the preparedness for Europe's response to any radiation emergency and long term contamination. The subsequent establishment of a European Technology Platform and the recent launch of the research project NERIS-TP ("Towards a self sustaining European Technology Platform (NERIS-TP) on Preparedness for Nuclear and Radiological Emergency Response and Recovery") are aimed to continue with the remaining tasks for gaining appropriate levels of emergency preparedness at local level in most European countries. One of the objectives of the NERIS-TP project is: Strengthen the preparedness at the local/national level by setting up dedicated fora and developing new tools or adapting the tools developed within the EURANOS projects (such as the governance framework for preparedness, the handbooks on countermeasures, the RODOS system, and the MOIRA DSS for long term contamination in catchments) to meet the needs of local communities. CIEMAT and UPM in close interaction with the Nuclear Safety Council will explore, within this project, the use and application in Spain of such technical tools, including other national tools and information and communication strategies to foster cooperation between local, national and international stakeholders. The aim is identify and involve relevant stakeholders in emergency preparedness to improve the development and implementation of appropriate protection strategies as part of the consequence management and the transition to recovery. In this paper, an overview of the "state of the art" on this area in Spain and the methodology and work Plan proposed by the Spanish group within the project NERIS to grow the stakeholder involvement in the preparedness to emergency response and recovery is presented.

Condensation in ducts

Phase changing flows are being considered for thermal management in space platforms. The resulting flow patterns are very complicated and extremely sensitive to gravity action. Concerning fluid flow in ducts, the available evidence indicates that although the pressure loss does not depend too much on the fluid flow pattern,the heat transfer (and resulting phase change) does. A simple exercise to illustrate this point is presented in this paper. It deals with condensing flow in straight circular cross-sectional ducts. Two extreme configurations are considered here, one corresponds to a stratified flow and the other to an annular flow. Both types of flow patterns have been extensively considered in the past and from this point of view almost nothing is new in the paper, but past results look conflictive and this could be due to the limitations and computational intricacies of the models used. Thus the problem has been reformulated from the onset and the results are presented as the evolution of the vapor quality (vapor to total mass flow rate) along the duct, in typical cases. The results presented here indicate that within the validity of the present models and the assumed ranges of mass flow rate, duct diameter, thermal conditions and fluid characteristics,the length of the ducts required to achieve complete condensation under zero gravity are an order of magnitude larger than in horizontal tubes under normal terrestrial conditions.

Criterios de optimización de los incentivos en contratos de concesión ligados a indicadores de calidad de servicio para firmes bituminosos

Actualmente se está empezando a consolidar una nueva forma de gestionar la conservación y mantenimiento de la red viaria de las Administraciones Públicas, basándose en contratos de colaboración público-privadas (PPP). Las motivaciones que están provocando este movimiento son de diversa índole. Por un lado, en el seno de la Unión Europea, existen serias restricciones presupuestarias debido al alto endeudamiento del sector público, lo que está llevando a buscar la forma óptima de disminuir el endeudamiento público, sin dejar de prestar servicios a la sociedad como la conservación y mantenimiento de las redes viarias. Por esta vertiente, se trata de convertir contratos convencionales de conservación viaria a esquemas de colaboración público-privada, donde se transferiría al sector privado el riesgo de disponibilidad de la vía mediante el uso de indicadores de calidad y servicio. Con esta transferencia de riesgo, junto con la transferencia del riesgo de demanda/construcción, no consolidaría la deuda de la sociedad de propósito específico constituida para la gestión del contrato de colaboración público-privada dentro de las cuentas públicas, con lo que se conseguiría no aumentar el déficit público, permitiendo continuar ofreciendo el servicio demandado por la sociedad. Por otro lado, la segunda motivación del desarrollo de este tipo de contratos, no tan economicista como la anterior y más enfocada a la gestión, se trata de utilizar los contratos de gestión basados en el uso de indicadores de calidad de servicio para mejorar las prestaciones de la red viaria competencia de una Administración. Con el uso de estos indicadores, el gestor tiene una herramienta muy útil para controlar la actividad del sector privado y asegurar que se ofrece un buen servicio. En la presente tesis, la investigación se ha centrado más en la vertiente de los indicadores de calidad relacionados con la gestión eficiente de las vías objeto de conservación y mantenimiento mediante el empleo de contratos de gestión privada que utilicen este tipo de herramientas de control, monitorización y gestión. En una primera parte, la presente tesis estudia el estado de la red de carreteras, referido principalmente a España, comparando su estado con el resto de redes de carreteras de Europa, detectando las principales carencias de la misma, sobre todo en cuanto a la gestión y conservación de firmes. En un segundo bloque, la tesis analiza el estado del arte de los nuevos procedimientos de gestión de la conservación y mantenimiento basados en indicadores de calidad del servicio en el mundo, destacándose que se trata de un tema relativamente reciente, con gran interés para el sector de la gestión y financiación de infraestructuras viarias. Al ser tan novedoso, por la falta de experiencias previas, las distintas Administración, tanto propias como foráneas, han pecado de un exceso de celo a la hora de establecer los umbrales sobre los que giran los distintos indicadores de calidad de servicio que permiten controlar la gestión de la conservación y mantenimiento de la vía. Partiendo de la labor de análisis descrita, la tesis realiza una investigación más detallada de los indicadores de calidad de servicio correspondientes a firmes bituminosos, debido a que estos indicadores son los más delicados y decisivos a la hora de realizar una correcta gestión de la vía a largo plazo. Dentro de los indicadores de firmes bituminosos, se ha realizado un modelo específico de evolución de comportamiento a lo largo del tiempo de la regularidad superficial, parámetro básico para numerosas Administraciones y organismos investigadores para poder conocer la evolución de un firme a lo largo del tiempo. A esta metodología se le ha dado el nombre de Modelo JRB para evaluar la racionalidad económica de indicadores de calidad asociados a parámetros de firmes. El modelo propuesto básicamente evalúa el valor óptimo desde la perspectiva económica que ha de tener el parámetro técnico que defina alguna propiedad del firme, aplicado a la definición de los indicadores de calidad de servicio. Esta visión del valor umbral del indicador deja a un lado consideraciones de equidad o de cualquier otra índole, basándose más en una visión económica. La metodología del Modelo JRB se puede aplicar a cualquier indicador de calidad relacionado con firmes, ya que lo que se obtiene es el valor óptimo económico que debería tener el umbral del indicador de calidad. El Modelo JRB consta de varias fases. En las primeras etapas el Modelo realiza el cálculo de los costes totales de transporte utilizando como herramienta el software HDM-IV desarrollado por el Banco Mundial. En etapas posteriores, el Modelo realiza análisis de sensibilidad para distintas propuestas de sección de firme, intensidades de tráfico y restricciones al parámetro técnico que define el indicador de calidad de servicio. Como ejercicio práctico de cara a contrastar la metodología del Modelo JRB se ha realizado un Caso de Estudio. Se ha tomado un tramo teórico, con características similares a la red de carreteras española, y con una flota vehicular similar a la española, donde se ha elegido como indicador de calidad la regularidad superficial (IRI). Con las sensibilidades realizadas con el Modelo JRB, se ha determinado el rango de valores que debería tener un indicador de calidad basado en el IRI para que dichos valores fueran óptimos desde la perspectiva económica Nowadays is becoming a new way to manage O&M (operation and maintenance) in public road networks, based on PPP contracts (public-private partnership). There are several issues which are driving this trend. On the one hand, EU (European Union) has serious budgetary constraints due to the high public sector borrowing. EU politicians are looking for the best way to reduce public debt, keeping services to society such as O&M of road networks. For this aspect, conventional O&M contracts are switching to PPP scenarios, where availability risk would be transfer to private sector using PI (performance indicators), along with demand risk transfer With this risk transference, along with the transfer of demand/construction risk, SPV (specific purpose vehicle) debt doesn’t consolidate in public accounts, so deficit wouldn’t increase, allowing the continuation of services demanded by society. On the other hand, the second motivation for developing this kind of contracts, not so economist as above and more focused to management, it is about using O&M contracts based on the use of PI to improve road network maintenance. Using these indicators, manager has a very useful tool to monitor private sector activity and ensure that it is provided a good service. In this thesis, the research has been focused on PI quality aspect, related with efficient management of PPP contracts for roads, which use these tools for control, monitoring and management. In the first part, this thesis examines the state of road network, based mainly in Spain, comparing with other road networks in Europe, identifying the main gaps in it, especially with regard to the management and maintenance of pavements. In a second block, the thesis analyzes the state of art of new O&M contracts based on PI in the world, emphasizing that they are relatively recent. These kinds of contracts have a great interest in road management and financing sector. Administrations all around the world have launch tenders with very exigent PI thresholds due to several factors: this knowledge is a new area, the lack of previous experiences and the variety of Administrations which have bid these contracts. Building on the described analysis, thesis develops a more detailed research about PI for bituminous pavements, because these PI are the most delicate and decisive in making a proper long term road management. Among bituminous pavements PI, IRI (International Roughness Index) has been analyzed with more detail and has been developed a specific model of behaviour evolution over time for evenness (IRI), basic parameter for many administrations and research departments in order to know the evolution of a pavement over time. This methodology has been given the name of JRB Model to evaluate the economic rationality of performance indicators associated with pavements parameters. The proposed model basically evaluates the optimal value from an economic perspective it must have the technical parameter which defines some pavement characteristic applied to the definition of performance indicators. This point of view of indicator value threshold sets aside justice considerations or otherwise, based more on an economic perspective. JRB Model methodology can be applied to any performance indicator associated to pavements, because what you get is the economic optimum threshold should have the performance indicator. JRB Model consists of several phases. In the early stages, the Model calculates transport total cost using HDM-IV software, developed by the World Bank, as a tool. In later stages, the Model performs sensitivity analyzes for different pavement section, AADT and restrictions to the technical parameter which defines the performance indicator. As a practical exercise to test JRB Model methodology, it has done a Case Study. It has taken a theoretical section, with similar characteristics to Spanish road network, and a vehicles fleet similar to Spanish. Evenness (IRI) was chosen as a performance indicator. JRB Model calculated some sensitivities, which were useful to determined thresholds range for pavement performance indicators based on IRI to be optimal from an economic perspective.

Responses to increasing exercise upon reaching the anaerobic threshold, and their control by the central nervous system

Sistema nervioso y ejercicio

A Program of Exercise Throughout Pregnancy. Is It Safe to Mother and Newborn?

The aim of the present study was to examine the influence of a program of moderate physical exercise throughout pregnancy on maternal and fetal parameters.

Exercise-based intervention to prevent excessive gestational

El ejercicio en el embarazo.

Implications of the mesophyll conductance to CO2 for photosynthesis and water-use efficiency during long-term water stress and recovery in two contrasting Eucalyptu species

Water stress (WS) slows growth and photosynthesis (An), but most knowledge comes from short-time studies that do not account for longer term acclimation processes that are especially relevant in tree species. Using two Eucalyptus species that contrast in drought tolerance, we induced moderate and severe water deficits by withholding water until stomatal conductance (gsw) decreased to two pre-defined values for 24 d, WS was maintained at the target gsw for 29 d and then plants were re-watered. Additionally, we developed new equations to simulate the effect on mesophyll conductance (gm) of accounting for the resistance to refixation of CO2. The diffusive limitations to CO2, dominated by the stomata, were the most important constraints to An. Full recovery of An was reached after re-watering, characterized by quick recovery of gm and even higher biochemical capacity, in contrast to the slower recovery of gsw. The acclimation to long-term WS led to decreased mesophyll and biochemical limitations, in contrast to studies in which stress was imposed more rapidly. Finally, we provide evidence that higher gm under WS contributes to higher intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) and reduces the leaf oxidative stress, highlighting the importance of gm as a target for breeding/genetic engineering.

Use of infrared thermography as a tool to monitor skin temperature along the recovery process of an anterior cruciate ligament surgery

Infrared thermography (IRT) is a safe and non-invasive tool used for examining physiological functions based on skin temperature (Tsk) control. Thermograms from 25 anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) surgically operated patients (2 female, 23 male) were taken with a FLIR infrared camera according to the protocol established by the International Academy of Clinical Thermology (IACT). This work consists of 4 studies. Studies 1 and 3 were related to establish the probable thermal difference among different moments of an ACL rupture after surgery: before starting the rehabilitation (P0), at the end of rehabilitation (P1) and 18 months from the end of rehabilitation (P2). For this purpose, on the other hand, studies 2 and 4 were related to establish the skin thermal difference (Tsk) between the injured and the non-injured leg in P0, P1 and P2. Results of the first study showed significant temperature increases in the posterior thigh area between P0 and P1 probably due to a compensatory mechanism. According to this, we can conclude that temperature of the posterior area of the injured and noninjured leg has increased from the first to the last day of the rehabilitation process. In the second study we found significant temperature differences between the injured and non-injured leg in both stages of rehabilitation (p<.01). On the one hand, the temperature of the injured leg is higher in the anterior view and the temperature of the non-injured leg is higher in the posterior view. By the time the patients had recovered from the reconstruction, thermal imbalances should have not been shown between symmetrical parts, but differences seemed to be still latent.. Study 3 shows that temperatures seem to be higher after a year and a half (P2) than in P1. Study 4 shows how thermal values 18 months later seemed to be normalized between both legs. No significant differences were found between the injured leg and the noninjured leg after one year and a half of the rehabilitation process. Considering results from Study 3 and 4 we can conclude that patients seemed to have recovered from a thermal point of view. The temperature in P2 was higher but symmetrical. RESUMEN La termografía infrarroja (IRT) es una herramienta segura y no invasiva utilizada para examinar funciones fisiológicas que se basan en el control de temperatura de la piel (Tsk). Termogramas de 25 pacientes intervenidos quirúrgicamente del ligamento cruzado anterior (LCA) (2 mujeres, 23 hombres) fueron tomadas con una cámara de infrarrojos FLIR de acuerdo con el protocolo establecido por la Academia Internacional de Termología Clínica (IACT). Este trabajo consiste en 4 estudios. Los estudios 1 y 3 describen la diferencia térmica entre los diferentes momentos tras la operación del ligamento cruzado anterior: antes de comenzar la rehabilitación (P0), al final de la rehabilitación (P1) y 18 meses tras finalizar la rehabilitación (P2). Por otra parte, los estudios 2 y 4 describen la diferencia de temperatura de la piel (Tsk) entre la pierna lesionada y la pierna no lesionada en P0, P1 y P2. Los resultados del primer estudio mostraron aumentos significativos de temperatura en la zona posterior de los muslos entre P0 y P1, probablemente debido a un mecanismo de compensación. De acuerdo con esto, se puede concluir que la temperatura de la zona posterior de la pierna lesionada y no lesionada se ha incrementado desde el primero hasta el último día del proceso de rehabilitación. En el segundo estudio se encontraron diferencias significativas de temperatura entre la pierna lesionada y no lesionada en ambas etapas de la rehabilitación (p<.01). Por un lado, la temperatura de la pierna lesionada es mayor en la vista anterior. Por otro lado, la temperatura de la pierna no lesionada es mayor en la vista posterior. Una vez que los pacientes se han recuperado de todo el proceso, no deberían existir desequilibrios térmicos entre partes simétricas del cuerpo, pero las diferencias todavía estaban latentes. El tercer estudio muestra que la temperatura es más alta en P2 que en P1. El cuarto estudio muestra cómo los valores térmicos entre ambas piernas en P2 se han normalizado entre ambas piernas. No se encontraron diferencias significativas entre la pierna lesionada y la pierna no lesionada después de 18 meses tras el proceso de rehabilitación. Considerando los resultados del studio 3 y 4, podemos concluir que se ha llegado a la recuperación total desde un punto de vista térmico. La temperatura es más elevada en P2 pero simétrica.