Governance Structure Choices in Supply Chain Management Evidence from Spanish and Chinese Pork Chain Cases

The author participated in the 6 th EU Framework Project ―Q-pork Chains (FP6-036245-2)‖ from 2007 to 2009. With understanding of work reports from China and other countries, it is found that compared with other countries, China has great problems in pork quality and safety. By comparing the pork chain management between China and Spain, It is found that the difference in governance structure is one of the main differences in pork chain management between Spain and China. In China, spot-market relationship still dominates governance structure of pork chain, especially between the numerous house-hold pig holders and the great number of small slaughters. While in Spain, chain agents commonly apply cooperatives or integrations to cooperate. It also has been proven by recent studies, that in quality management at the chain level that supply chain integration has a direct effect on quality management practices (Han, 2010). Therefore, the author started to investigate the governance structure choices in supply chain management. And it has been set as the first research objective, which is to explain the governance structure choices process and the influencing factors in supply chain management, analyzing the pork chains cases in Spain and in China. During the further investigation, the author noticed the international trade of pork between Spain and China is not smooth since the signature of bi-lateral agreement on pork trade in 2007. Thus, another objective of the research is to find and solve the problems exist in the international pork chain between Spain and China. For the first objective, to explain the governance structure choices in supply chain management, the thesis conducts research in three main sections. 10 First of all, the thesis gives a literature overview in chapter two on Supply Chain Management (SCM), agri-food chain management and pork chain management. It concludes that SCM is a systems approach to view the supply chains as a whole, and to manage the total flow of goods inventory from the supplier to the ultimate customer. It includes the bi-directional flow of products (materials and services) and information, and the associated managerial and operational activities. And it also is a customer focus to create unique and individual source of customer value with an appropriate use of resources, leading to customer satisfaction and building competitive chain advantages. Agri-food chain management and pork chain management are applications of SCM in agri-food sector and pork sector respectively. Then, the research gives a comparative study in chapter three in the pork chain and pork chain management between Spain and China. Many differences are found, while the main difference is governance structure in pork chain management. Furthermore, the author gives an empirical study on governance structure choice in chapter five. It is concluded that governance structure of supply chain consists of a collection of rules/institutions/constraints structuring the transactions between the various stakeholders. Based on the overview on literatures closely related with governance structure, such as transaction cost economics, transaction value analysis and resource-based view theories, seven hypotheses are proposed, which are: Hypothesis 1: Transaction cost has positive relationship with governance structure choice Hypothesis 2: Uncertainty has positive relationship with transaction cost; higher uncertainty exerts high transaction cost Hypothesis 3: The relationship between asset specificity and transaction cost is positive Hypothesis 4: Collaboration advantages and governance structure choice have positive relationship11 Hypothesis 5: Willingness to collaborate has positive relationship with collaboration advantages Hypothesis 6: Capability to collaborate has positive relationship with collaboration advantages Hypothesis 7: Uncertainty has negative effect on collaboration advantages It is noted that as transaction cost value is negative, the transaction cost mentioned in the hypotheses is its absolute value. To test the seven hypotheses, Structural Equation Model (SEM) is applied and data collected from 350 pork slaughtering and processing companies in Jiangsu, Shandong and Henan Provinces in China is used. Based on the empirical SEM model and its results, the seven hypotheses are proved. The author generates several conclusions accordingly. It is found that the governance structure choice of the chain not only depends on transaction cost, it also depends on collaboration advantages. Exchange partners establish more stable and more intense relationship to reduce transaction cost and to maximize collaboration advantages. ―Collaboration advantages‖ in this thesis is defined as the joint value achieved through transaction (mutual activities) of agents in supply chains. This value forms as improvements, mainly in mutual logistics systems, cash response, information exchange, technological improvements and innovative improvements and quality management improvements, etc. Governance structure choice is jointly decided by transaction cost and collaboration advantages. Chain agents take different governance structures to coordinate in order to decrease their transaction cost and to increase their collaboration advantages. In China´s pork chain case, spot market relationship dominates the governance structure among the numerous backyard pig farmer and small family slaughterhouse 12 as they are connected by acquaintance relationship and the transaction cost in turn is low. Their relationship is reliable as they know each other in the neighborhood; as a result, spot market relationship is suitable for their exchange. However, the transaction between large-scale slaughtering and processing industries and small-scale pig producers is becoming difficult. The information hold back behavior and hold-up behavior of small-scale pig producers increase transaction cost between them and large-scale slaughtering and processing industries. Thus, through the more intense and stable relationship between processing industries and pig producers, processing industries reduce the transaction cost and improve the collaboration advantages with their chain partners, in which quality and safety collaboration advantages be increased, meaning that processing industries are able to provide consumers products with better quality and higher safety. It is also drawn that transaction cost is influenced mainly by uncertainty and asset specificity, which is in line with new institutional economics theories developed by Williamson O. E. In China´s pork chain case, behavioral uncertainty is created by the hold-up behaviors of great numbers of small pig producers, while big slaughtering and processing industries having strong asset specificity. On the other hand, ―collaboration advantages‖ is influenced by chain agents´ willingness to collaborate and chain agents´ capabilities to cooperate. With the fast growth of big scale slaughtering and processing industries, they are more willing to know and make effort to cooperate with their chain members, and they are more capable to create joint value together with other chain agents. Therefore, they are now the main chain agents who drive more intense and stable governance structure in China‘s pork chain. For the other objective, to find and solve the problems in the international pork chain between Spain and China, the research gives an analysis in chapter four on the 13 international pork chain. This study gives explanations why the international trade of pork between Spain and China is not sufficient from the chain perspective. It is found that the first obstacle is the high quality and safety requirement set by Chinese government. It makes the Spanish companies difficult to get authorities to export. Other aspects, such as Spanish pork is not competitive in price compared with other countries such as Denmark, United States, Canada, etc., Chinese consumers do not have sufficient information on Spanish pork products, are also important reasons that Spain does not export great quantity of pork products to China. It is concluded that China´s government has too much concern on the quality and safety requirements to Spanish pork products, which makes trade difficult to complete. The two countries need to establish a more stable and intense trade relationship. They also should make the information exchange sufficient and efficient and try to break trade barriers. Spanish companies should consider proper price strategies to win the Chinese pork market

An extended approach for service innovation study: an empirical research

Initially, service sector was defined as complementary to manufacturing sector. This situation has changed in recent times; services growth has resulted in a dominance of employment and economic activity in most developed nations and is becoming a key process for the competitiveness of their industrial sectors. New services related to commodities have become a strategy to differentiate their value proposition (Robinson et al., 2002). The service sector's importance is evident when evaluating its share in the gross domestic product. According to the World Bank (2011), in 2009, 74.8% of GDP in the euro area and 77.5% in United States were attributed to services. Globalization and use of information and communication technology has accelerated dissemination of knowledge and increasing customer expectations about services available worldwide. Innovation becomes essential to ensure that service organizations respond with appropriate products and services for each market segment. Customized and placed on time-tomarket new services require a more developed innovation process. Service innovation and new service development process are cited as one of the priorities for academic research in the following years (Karniouchina et al., 2005) This paper has the following objectives: -To present a model for the analysis of innovation process through the service value network, -To verify its applicability through an empirical research, and -To identify the path and mode of innovation for a group of studied organizations and to compare it with previous studies.

Intensive Metrics for the Study of the Evolution of Open Source Projects: Case Studies from Apache Software Foundation Projects

Based on the empirical evidence that the ratio of email messages in public mailing lists to versioning system commits has remained relatively constant along the history of the Apache Software Foundation (ASF), this paper has as goal to study what can be inferred from such a metric for projects of the ASF. We have found that the metric seems to be an intensive metric as it is independent of the size of the project, its activity, or the number of developers, and remains relatively independent of the technology or functional area of the project. Our analysis provides evidence that the metric is related to the technical effervescence and popularity of project, and as such can be a good candidate to measure its healthy evolution. Other, similar metrics -like the ratio of developer messages to commits and the ratio of issue tracker messages to commits- are studied for several projects as well, in order to see if they have similar characteristics.

The trade credit in the Spanish agrofood industry

Selling on credit is rather frequent in Mediterranean countries. Its generalized use can lead to excessive enlargements of the payment periods and consequently can deteriorate the profitability of firms. In spite of the relevance of this problem there are few empirical researches. This work intends to fill this gap and to shed light on the factors related to the extension of trade credit. In the theoretical and empirical literature, different motives have been proposed to explain this issue: a mechanism to reduce transaction costs, a financial alternative to the bank system and an additional tool to improve commercial activities. To contrast these ideas a panel of 388 firms of the Spanish agrofood industry has been taken, and static and dynamic regression models have been estimated by using robust methods to heteroskedasticity, autocorrelation and endogeneity of the explanatory variables. The results confirm that trade credit receivable is associated with more active firms and with cheaper bank financing. Other factors with positive relationships are short-term bank debts and accounts payable. These findings are consistent with commercial motives, rather than a pure financial view, in the sense that financial distressed producers extend trade credit as a way of promoting their products and in turn increasing their sales.

An empirical mixed model to quantify climate influence on the growth of Pinus halepensis Mill. stands in South-Eastern Spain

The influence of climate on forest stand composition, development and growth is undeniable. Many studies have tried to quantify the effect of climatic variables on forest growth and yield. These works become especially important because there is a need to predict the effects of climate change on the development of forest ecosystems. One of the ways of facing this problem is the inclusion of climatic variables into the classic empirical growth models. The work has a double objective: (i) to identify the indicators which best describe the effect of climate on Pinus halepensis growth and (ii) to quantify such effect in several scenarios of rainfall decrease which are likely to occur in the Mediterranean area. A growth mixed model for P. halepensis including climatic variables is presented in this work. Growth estimates are based on data from the Spanish National Forest Inventory (SNFI). The best results are obtained for the indices including rainfall, or rainfall and temperature together, with annual precipitation, precipitation effectiveness, Emberger?s index or free bioclimatic intensity standing out among them. The final model includes Emberger?s index, free bioclimatic intensity and interactions between competition and climate indices. The results obtained show that a rainfall decrease about 5% leads to a decrease in volume growth of 5.5?7.5% depending on site quality.

Estimation of functional connectivity from electromagnetic signals and the amount of empirical data required

An increasing number of neuroimaging studies are concerned with the identification of interactions or statistical dependencies between brain areas. Dependencies between the activities of different brain regions can be quantified with functional connectivity measures such as the cross-correlation coefficient. An important factor limiting the accuracy of such measures is the amount of empirical data available. For event-related protocols, the amount of data also affects the temporal resolution of the analysis. We use analytical expressions to calculate the amount of empirical data needed to establish whether a certain level of dependency is significant when the time series are autocorrelated, as is the case for biological signals. These analytical results are then contrasted with estimates from simulations based on real data recorded with magnetoencephalography during a resting-state paradigm and during the presentation of visual stimuli. Results indicate that, for broadband signals, 50–100 s of data is required to detect a true underlying cross-correlations coefficient of 0.05. This corresponds to a resolution of a few hundred milliseconds for typical event-related recordings. The required time window increases for narrow band signals as frequency decreases. For instance, approximately 3 times as much data is necessary for signals in the alpha band. Important implications can be derived for the design and interpretation of experiments to characterize weak interactions, which are potentially important for brain processing.

An Empirical Analysis of the Spanish Gas Price Structure

We can say without hesitation that in energy markets a throughout data analysis is crucial when designing sophisticated models that are able to capture most of the critical market drivers. In this study we will attempt to investigate into Spanish natural gas prices structure to improve understanding of the role they play in the determination of electricity prices and decide in the future about price modelling aspects. To further understand the potential for modelling, this study will focus on the nature and characteristics of the different gas price data available. The fact that the existing gas market in Spain does not incorporate enough liquidity of trade makes it even more critical to analyze in detail available gas price data information that in the end will provide relevant information to understand how electricity prices are affected by natural gas markets. In this sense representative Spanish gas prices are typically difficult to explore given the fact that there is not a transparent gas market yet and all the gas imported in the country is negotiated and purchased by private companies at confidential terms.

Overtopping of harbour breakwaters: a comparison of semi-empirical equations, neural networks, and physical model tests

This paper reports extensive tests of empirical equations developed by different authors for harbour breakwater overtopping. First, the existing equations are compiled and evaluated as tools for estimating the overtopping rates on sloping and vertical breakwaters. These equations are then tested using the data obtained in a number of laboratory studies performed in the Centre for Harbours and Coastal Studies of the CEDEX, Spain. It was found that the recommended application ranges of the empirical equations typically deviate from those revealed in the experimental tests. In addition, a neural network model developed within the European CLASH Project is tested. The wind effects on overtopping are also assessed using a reduced scale physical model

Vortex-induced vibrations on bridges : the interaction mechanism in complex sections and a new proposed semi-empirical model

El presente trabajo de investigación se ocupa del estudio de las vibraciones verticales inducidas por vórtices (VIV) en aquellos puentes que, por sus características geométricas y propiedades dinámicas, muestran cierta sensibilidad este tipo de fenómeno aeroelástico. El objeto principal es el análisis del mecanismo de interacción viento-estructura sobre secciones no fuseladas de geometría simple, con objeto de realizar una adecuada caracterización del problema y poder abordar posteriormente el análisis de otras secciones de geometría más compleja, representativas de los principales elementos estructurales de los puentes, como arcos, tableros, torres y pilas. Este aspecto es fundamental durante la fase de diseño del puente, donde deberán tenerse en cuenta también una serie de detalles que pueden influir significativamente su sensibilidad ante problemas aerodinámicos, como la morfología y dimensiones principales de la sección transversal del tablero, la disposición de barreras de seguridad y barreras cortaviento, o las riostras que unen diferentes elementos estructurales. La configuración de dos elementos en tándem o la construcción de un puente en las inmediaciones de otro existente son otros aspectos a considerar respecto a la sensibilidad frente a efectos aeroelásticos. El estudio se ha llevado a cabo principalmente mediante la implementación de simulaciones numéricas que reproducen la interacción entre la corriente de aire y secciones representativas de modelos estructurales, a partir de un código CFD basado en el método de las partículas de vórtices (VPM), siguiendo por tanto un esquema Lagrangiano. Los resultados han sido validados con datos experimentales existentes, valores procedentes de ensayos en túnel de viento y registros reales a partir de diferentes casos de estudio: Alconétar (2006), Niterói (1980), Trans- Tokyo Bay (1995) y Volgogrado (2010). Finalmente, se propone un modelo semi-empírico para la estimación del rango de velocidades críticas y amplitudes de oscilación basado en la utilización de las derivadas de flameo de Scanlan, y la densidad espectral de las fuerzas aerodinámicas en el dominio de la frecuencia. The present research work concerns the study of vertical vortex-induced vibrations (VIV) in bridges which show certain sensitivity to this type of aeroelastic phenomenon. It focuses on the analysis of the wind-structure interaction mechanism on bluff sections, with the objective of making a good characterisation of the problem and subsequently addressing the analysis of sections with a complex geometry, which are representative of the bridge structural elements, such as arches, decks, towers and piers. This issue is of relative importance during the bridge design phase, since minor details of the aforementioned elements can significantly influence its sensitivity to aerodynamic problems. The shape and main dimensions of the deck cross section, the addition of safety barriers and windshields, the presence of braces to enhance the structure mechanical properties, the utilisation of cross sections in tandem arrangement, or the erection of a new bridge in the vicinity of another existing one are some of the aspects to be considered regarding the sensitivity to the aeroelastic effects. The study has been carried out mainly through the implementation of numerical simulations that reproduces the interaction between the airflow and the representative cross section of a structural bridge model, by the use of a CFD code based on the vortex particle method (VPM), thus following a Lagrangian scheme. The results have been validated with existing experimental data, values from wind tunnel tests and full scale observations from the different case studies: Alconétar (2006), Niterói (1980), Trans-Tokyo Bay (1995) and Volgograd (2010). Finally, a new semi-empirical model is proposed for the estimation of the critical wind velocity ranges and oscillation amplitudes based on the use of the Scanlan’s flutter derivatives and the power spectral density of aerodynamic force time history in the frequency domain.

Business, development and inclusive supply chains. Exploring pathways for the sustainable incorporation of the poor as suppliers in agrifood supply chains

El panorama global está cambiando, y esto influye sobre la forma en la que entendemos y tratamos de alcanzar un desarrollo humano sostenible. El crecimiento de la población conlleva una mayor presión sobre los recursos, pero también supone una mayor cantidad de mano de obra y de talento; la concentración en áreas urbanas está cambiando las dinámicas sociales y desafiando los canales de comercialización tradicionales, pero también genera nuevos mercados y fomenta la innovación; los cambios en la economía global están reduciendo los tradicionales desequilibrios de poder entre los países occidentales y el resto del mundo; y las crecientes interconexiones crean nuevos riesgos pero también oportunidades para lanzar iniciativas de alcance global. Todas estas tendencias nos están obligando a repensar qué es el desarrollo humano y de qué manera deberíamos afrontar el reto de la pobreza. Es comúnmente aceptado que la globalización implica interdependencia y que, para conseguir un desarrollo humano sostenible, la colaboración entre actores de distintos ámbitos es necesaria. Se observa una creciente convergencia de temas, intereses y soluciones en torno al desarrollo sostenible, incluso en diferentes países y sectores, lo que está facilitando la colaboración estratégica entre empresas, gobiernos y sociedad civil. Existen pocas duda a día de hoy sobre el papel fundamental que las empresas deben desempeñar en la transición mundial hacia la sostenibilidad ambiental y la erradicación de la pobreza. Las empresas están evolucionando desde un enfoque tradicional centrado en la maximización de beneficios económicos hacia un enfoque holístico que integra la sostenibilidad y la responsabilidad social como parte del núcleo de negocio de las compañías. En el ámbito medioambiental, muchas empresas ya han comenzado a actuar y tratan de reducir sus emisiones, sus desechos y su consumo de energía. Sin embargo la contribución de las empresas a la reducción de la pobreza no está tan clara. Actualmente en torno a 1,2 miles de millones de personas viven en situación de extrema pobreza. La mayoría de estas personas aún vive en zonas rurales donde la mayor parte de la población activa trabaja en el sector agrícola. Por lo tanto, mejorar las oportunidades y reducir los riesgos de los productores más vulnerables en el sector de la agricultura puede ser un motor de desarrollo rural y reducción de la pobreza, especialmente en países de bajo nivel de desarrollo cuyas economías están fundamentalmente basadas en la agricultura. Algunas empresas comienzan a incluir a los pobres en sus operaciones como consumidores, proveedores y emprendedores. Esta tesis se centra en las potenciales oportunidades relacionadas con la incorporación sostenible de los pobres como proveedores de productos y/o de mano de obra. La colaboración entre empresas y productores vulnerables de países en desarrollo es un tema relativamente nuevo y todavía poco estudiado. La pregunta que guía esta tesis es: “¿Cómo pueden las empresas facilitar la inclusión sostenible en cadenas de suministro de productores vulnerables de los países menos desarrollados?”. Para responder a la pregunta anterior, la autora ha aplicado una metodología de casos de estudio. Esta metodología se considera apropiada porque la investigación sobre cadenas de suministro inclusivas es todavía escasa y porque es necesario entender en profundidad un fenómeno de la vida real, y para ello es fundamental conocer su contexto. En primer lugar, se realiza una revisión de literatura para identificar las proposiciones y los constructos teóricos que guiarán la posterior recogida de datos. La revisión de literatura se divide en dos partes: una más general que explora la dimensión social de la sostenibilidad en cadenas de suministro, y una más específica que se centra en la incorporación de los pobres como proveedores en cadenas de suministro. A lo largo de la última década, ha habido un crecimiento exponencial de los estudios académicos sobre la sostenibilidad de las cadenas de suministro, pero la mayoría de los esfuerzos se han dirigido hacia la dimensión medioambiental de la sostenibilidad. Por lo tanto la revisión de literatura, que se presenta en la Sección 3.1 (página 35) y que profundiza en la sostenibilidad social de las cadenas de suministro, puede considerarse una contribución en sí misma. Esta revisión de literatura revela que la investigación sobre aspectos sociales en cadenas de suministro está cobrando impulso en distintas áreas de conocimiento, principalmente en los ámbitos de investigación sobre “gestión de cadenas de suministro”, “responsabilidad social corporativa” y “estudios del desarrollo”. La investigación existente sobre sostenibilidad social de cadenas de suministro se centra en tres temas: aclarar la definición de sostenibilidad social; analizar la implementación de estrategias de sostenibilidad social en cadenas de suministro; y estudiar el apoyo de las em presas líderes a proveedores vulnerables para facilitar su transición hacia la sostenibilidad. Un marco conceptual que resume los principales hallazgos de esta primera parte de la revisión de literatura es planteado en la Figura 7 (página 48). No obstante, en el área de investigación que está emergiendo en torno a la sostenibilidad social de las cadenas de suministro, los estudios relacionados con la reducción de la pobreza son aún escasos. Además se aprecia una falta de contribuciones desde y sobre los países menos desarrollados, así como una clara tendencia a reflejar la visión de las empresas líderes de las cadenas de suministro, olvidando la perspectiva de los proveedores. La segunda parte de la revisión de literatura presentada en la Sección 3.2 (página 51) profundiza en tres líneas de investigación que exploran, desde distintas perspectivas, la inclusión de los pobres en cadenas de suministro. Estas líneas son “Global Value Chains” (GVC), “Base of the Pyramid” (BoP) y “Sustainable Supply Chain Management” (SSCM). La investigación en GVC analiza las cadenas de suministro desde la perspectiva de la globalización económica y el comercio internacional, poniendo especial énfasis en las implicaciones para los países en desarrollo y las comunidades vulnerables. GVC caracteriza las cadenas de suministro según la forma en la que son gobernadas, las oportunidades de mejora que existen para los productores que forman parte de la cadena y el grado de inclusión o exclusión de las comunidades más pobres y vulnerables. La investigación en BoP explora las relaciones comerciales entre empresas y comunidades pobres. La premisa fundamental del concepto BoP es la posibilidad de combinar la generación de beneficios con la reducción de la pobreza. La propuesta original es que mediante la venta de productos y servicios a las comunidades pobres de países en desarrollo, la pobreza puede ser reducida al tiempo que las empresas incrementan sus beneficios, especialmente las grandes empresas multinacionales. Esta idea ha ido evolucionando y, a día de hoy, los investigadores BoP consideran la incorporación de los pobres no sólo como consumidores sino también como empleados, proveedores y co-creadores. La investigación en SSCM ha estado fundamentalmente orientada al estudio de la dimensión medioambiental de la sostenibilidad de cadenas de suministro. Sin embargo, la creciente externalización de la producción a países en desarrollo y las demandas de los grupos de interés para que las empresas aborden todos los aspectos de la sostenibilidad han llevado a los académicos de SSCM a reconocer la importancia de integrar asuntos relacionados con la reducción de la pobreza en sus investigaciones. Algunos estudios comienzan a apuntar los principales retos a los que se enfrentan las empresas para colaborar con productores vulnerables en sus cadenas de suministro. Estos retos son: falta de comunicación, altos costes de transacción y el incremento de la complejidad de las operaciones. Las contribuciones de estas tres líneas de investigación son complementarias para el estudio de las cadenas de suministro inclusivas. Sin embargo, raramente han sido consideradas conjuntamente, ya que pertenecen a ámbitos de conocimiento distintos. Esta tesis integra las aportaciones de GVC, BoP y SSCM en un marco conceptual para la creación y gestión de cadenas de suministro inclusivas. Este marco conceptual para cadenas de suministro inclusivas queda representado en la Figura 9 (página 68). El marco conceptual refleja las motivaciones que llevan a las empresas a colaborar con productores vulnerables, los retos a los que se enfrentan al hacerlo, y los caminos o estrategias que están siguiendo para construir y operar cadenas de suministro inclusivas de manera que sean beneficiosas tanto para la empresa como para los productores vulnerables. A fin de validar y refinar el marco conceptual propuesto, tres casos de estudio se llevan a cabo. Las cadenas de suministro analizadas por los casos de estudio pertenecen al sector agrícola y sus principales proveedores se encuentran en países de África subsahariana. Múltiples métodos de recolección de datos y triangulación son utilizados para mejorar la fiabilidad de los datos. La autora desarrolló trabajos de campo en Senegal, Etiopía y Tanzania. Estos viajes permitieron enriquecer el proceso de recogida de información mediante entrevistas semiestructuradas y conversaciones informales con los principales actores de la cadena de suministro y mediante la observación directa de los procesos y las interacciones entre productores vulnerables y empresas. El Caso de estudio A (Sección 5.1 en página 96) es un caso de estudio único. Analiza la cadena de suministro local de verduras en Senegal. La organización focal es Manobi, una empresa senegalesa que provee servicios de bajo coste a emprendedores locales del sector agrícola. El Caso de estudio A proporciona un interesante análisis del funcionamiento de una cadena de suministro local en un país en desarrollo y muestra como la provisión de servicios profesionales puede mejorar el desempeño de productores vulnerables. El Caso de estudio B (Sección 5.2 en página 122) es un caso de estudio único. Analiza la cadena de suministro global de flor cortada con origen en Etiopía. La organización focal es EHPEA, la Asociación Etíope de Productores y Exportadores Hortícolas, cuya misión es promover y salvaguardar la posición competitiva del sector agrícola etíope en el mercado global. El Caso de estudio B ayuda a comprender mejor la perspectiva de los proveedores respecto a los requerimiento de sostenibilidad del mercado global. También muestra cómo la inclusión de los productores en el proceso de desarrollo de un estándar privado facilita su implementación posterior. El Caso de estudio C (Sección 5.3 en página 143) es un caso de estudio múltiple. Analiza la cadena de suministro global de café especial con origen en Tanzania. Las organizaciones focales son comerciantes que conectan de manera directa a pequeños agricultores de café en países en desarrollo con empresas tostadoras de café en países desarrollados. El Caso de estudio C muestra cómo un pequeño agricultor puede proveer un producto “premium” al mercado global, y participar en un segmento diferenciado del mercado a través de una cadena de suministro transparente y eficiente. Las aportaciones empíricas de los casos de estudio ayudan a validar y mejorar el marco conceptual sobre cadenas de suministro inclusivas (ver discusión en el Capítulo 6 en página 170). El resultado es la propuesta de una nueva versión del marco conceptual representado en la Figura 40 (página 195). Los casos de estudio también proporcionan interesantes aportaciones en relación a la gestión de cadenas de suministro inclusivas y muestran las perspectivas de distintos actores implicados. Esta tesis arroja luz sobre el papel de las empresas en la creación y la gestión de cadenas de suministro inclusivas llevando a cabo una revisión de literatura multidisciplinar y analizando tres casos de estudio en países africanos. Como resultado, esta tesis presenta una serie de contribuciones empíricas y teóricas al ámbito de investigación emergente en torno a las cadenas de suministro inclusivas (Capítulo 7). Esta tesis también pretende ser útil a profesionales que deseen facilitar la incorporación de los pobres como proveedores en condiciones justas y beneficiosas. ABSTRACT The global outlook is changing, and this is influencing the way we understand and try to achieve sustainable human development. Population growth entails increasing pressure over resources, but it also provides greater workforce and talent; concentration in urban areas is changing social dynamics and challenging traditional marketing channels, but also creating news markets and driving innovation; the global economy shift is rebalancing the traditional power imbalance between Western countries and the rest of the world, making new opportunities to arise; and interconnections and global interdependence create new risks but also opportunities for launching initiatives with a global reach. All these trends are impelling us to rethink what development is and in which way poverty alleviation should be approached. It is generally agreed that globalization implies interdependence and, in order to achieve sustainable human development, collaboration of all actors is needed. A convergence of issues, interests and solutions related to sustainable development is being observed across countries and sectors, encouraging strategic collaboration among companies, governments and civil society. There is little doubt nowadays about the crucial role of the private sector in the world’s path towards environmental sustainability and poverty alleviation. Businesses are evolving from a “business as usual” stance to a more sustainable and responsible approach. In the environmental arena, many companies have already “walk the talk”, implementing environmental management systems and trying to reduce emissions and energy consumption. However, regarding poverty alleviation, their contribution is less clear. There are around 1.2 billion people living in extreme poverty. Most of this people still live in rural areas where the agricultural sector employs a big part of the active population. Therefore, improving opportunities and reducing risks for vulnerable producers in the agri-food sector can be a primary engine of rural development and poverty alleviation, particularly in the poor, agriculture-based economies of least developed countries. Some companies are beginning to include the poor into their operations as consumers, suppliers and entrepreneurs. This thesis focuses specifically on the potential opportunities related to the sustainable incorporation of the poor as suppliers of products and/or labor. Business collaboration with vulnerable producers in developing countries is a relatively new trend and it is still understudied. The overall question guiding this thesis is: “How can businesses facilitate the sustainable inclusion of vulnerable producers from least developed countries into supply chains?”. In order to answer the research question, the author has applied a case study research strategy. This methodology is considered appropriate because research about inclusive supply chains is still at an early stage, and because there is a need to understand a real-life phenomenon in depth, but such understanding encompasses important contextual conditions. First, a literature review is conducted, in order to identify the research propositions and theoretical constructs that will guide the data collection. The literature review is divided in two parts: a more general one that explores the social dimension of sustainability of supply chains, and a more specific one that focuses on the incorporation of the poor as suppliers in supply chains. During the last decade, there has been an exponential growth of studies in the field of supply chain sustainability, but research efforts have traditionally been directed towards the analysis of the environmental dimension. Therefore, the literature review presented in Section 3.1 (page 35) that delves into social sustainability of supply chains can be considered a contribution in itself. This literature review reveals that the investigation of social issues in supply chains is gaining momentum and comes from different academic disciplines, namely Supply Chain Management, Corporate Social Responsibility and Development Studies. Existing research about social sustainability of supply chains focuses on three issues: clarify the definition of social sustainability; analyze the implementation of social sustainability strategies in supply chains; and study lead companies’ support to vulnerable suppliers in their transition towards sustainability. A conceptual framework that outlines the main findings that emerge from this first part of literature review is proposed in Figure 7 (page 48). Nevertheless, in this nascent field of social sustainability of supply chains, studies related to poverty alleviation are still scarce. Moreover, a lack of contributions from and about least developed countries has been observed, as well as a tendency to reflect on the lead firms’ standpoint, neglecting the suppliers’ perspective. The second part of the literature review (Section 3.2 in page 51) delves into three research streams that are exploring the inclusion of the poor into supply chains from different viewpoints. These research streams are Global Value Chains (GVC), Base of the Pyramid (BoP) and Sustainable Supply Chain Management (SSCM). GVC research discusses the dynamics of economic globalization and international trade, putting special emphasis in the implications for developing countries and vulnerable communities. GVC characterizes supply chains by the way they are governed, the upgrading opportunities that exist for producers in the chain and the degree of inclusion or exclusion of impoverished communities. BoP research explores trading relationships between businesses and impoverished communities. The core premise of the BoP concept is the possibility to combine profits with poverty alleviation. The original BoP proposition is that by marketing innovative products and services to poor communities in developing countries, poverty would be reduced and companies would increase their benefits, especially multinational companies. This idea has evolved to consider the incorporation of the poor to business activities not only as consumers, but also as employees, entrepreneurs and co-creators. The SSCM school of thought has mainly focused on studying the environmental dimension of supply chain sustainability, neglecting the consideration of the social perspective. However, in recent years, increasing outsourcing of production to developing countries and stakeholders’ demands for a more holistic approach to business sustainability have led SSCM scholars to acknowledge the importance of integrating poverty concerns in this field’s research agenda. Some SSCM studies identify the main operational challenges for companies which engage with vulnerable suppliers in their supply chains: missing communication, higher transactional and operational costs and increased complexity. Contributions from these three research streams are complementary for the study of inclusive supply chains. However, they have been rarely considered together, since they belong to different research areas. This thesis seeks to play a dovetailing role in this scenario by proposing a conceptual framework for creating and operating inclusive supply chains that builds on contributions from GVC, SSCM and BoP research. This framework for inclusive supply chains is depicted in Figure 9 (page 68), and explains the motivations that drive businesses to collaborate with vulnerable suppliers, the chal lenges they face in doing so, and the pathways they are following in order to build and operate inclusive supply chains profitably for both buying companies and vulnerable suppliers. In order to validate and refine the proposed framework, three case studies are carried out. The supply chains analyzed by the case studies belong to the agri-food sector and source from Sub-Saharan African countries. Multiple data collection methods and triangulation are used in order to improve reliability of findings. The author carried out field work in Senegal, Ethiopia and Tanzania. These travels enriched the data collection process, providing semi-structured interviews and informal conversations with the main actors in the supply chains, as well as direct observation of processes and interactions among companies and vulnerable suppliers. Case study A (Section 5.1 in page 96) is a single case study. It analyzes a local supply chain in Senegal providing vegetables to the local market. The focal organization is Manobi, a Senegalese inclusive business which provides affordable ICT services to local entrepreneurs in the agri-food sector. Case study A provides interesting insights into the dynamics of local supply chains and how professional services can help to improve their performance. Case study B (Section 5.2 in page 122) is a single case study. It analyzes a global supply chain with origin in Ethiopia providing cut flowers to the global commodity market. The focal organization is EHPEA, Ethiopian Horticulture Producers and Exporters Association, whose mission is to promote and safeguard the competitive position of the Ethiopian horticulture sector within the global market. Case study B helps to better understand the suppliers’ perspective regarding global market sustainability requirements and shows how the inclusion of suppliers in the process of development of a private standard has a positive impact in its implementation. Case study C (Section 5.3 in page 143) is a multiple case study. It analyzes a global supply chain with origin in Tanzania providing coffee to the global niche market of specialty coffee. The focal organizations are traders who are directly connecting smallholder coffee farmers in developing countries to coffee roasters in developed countries. Case study C shows how smallholder farmers can supply a premium product and be incorporated in a differentiated market segment through a transparent and efficient supply chain. The empirical findings from the case studies help to validate and refine the conceptual framework (see discussion in Chapter 6). The proposal of a new version of the conceptual framework is depicted in Figure 40 (page 195). The case studies also provide interesting insights related to the management of inclusive supply chains and show the perspectives of the different actors involved. This thesis sheds some light on the role of businesses in the creation and operation of inclusive supply chains by carrying out a cross-disciplinary literature review and analyzing three case studies in African countries. In doing so, this thesis presents a series of theoretical and empirical contributions to the emerging academic field of inclusive supply chains (Chapter 7). This thesis also intends to be useful to practitioners willing to improve the incorporation of the poor as suppliers in fair and profitable conditions.