Diseño de instrumentos para configurar una política industrial en España basada en los postulados de la economía evolutiva

La evidencia empírica aplicada a países de cierto tamaño y desarrollo económico, muestra que existe una relación directa y positiva entre la intensidad de la industria manufacturera, medida como porcentaje de su PIB, y ciertas variables económicas como, el crecimiento, el desempleo y la balanza exterior de bienes y servicios. En el caso de esta última, se verifica empíricamente, que los países con una proporción de actividad manufacturera inferior al 20%, tienen una marcada tendencia a presentar déficits crónicos de balanza de bienes y servicios, lo que conduce a persistentes déficits por cuenta corriente, al ser el primer déficit el principal componente del segundo. Esto trae consigo un continuado incremento del endeudamiento externo que no cesa, y que terminará en algún momento por desequilibrar el conjunto de la economía de los países con esos déficits crónicos. Las anteriores conclusiones, abren una vía de orientación de la política económica, que tiene como objetivo la promoción de la industria manufacturera de cada país. Y esto es un hecho ya en 2014. Países relevantes, como Alemania o Francia en la UE, incluso los EEUU y últimamente el Reino Unido, y por supuesto países del área asiática como Japón, Corea del Sur y China, llevan años promoviendo su industria manufacturera. Resulta significativo, que el debate ideológico sobre la bondad de la aplicación política industrial por parte de los gobiernos, frente a las teorías liberales de mantener a los poderes públicos lejos de ese tipo de actividades, haya dado paso a un modelo generalizado de corte más bien horizontal, donde los países casi sin excepciones apoyan el desarrollo de sus empresas con numerosos instrumentos, que van bastante más lejos de los habituales de I+D. Se valora por tanto, la industria manufacturera como algo vital para el equilibrio económico. Incluso la UE, defensora durante décadas de la no intervención de los diferentes Estados miembros en actividades de promoción industrial más allá del apoyo a las actividades de I+D, realiza un giro copernicano, que termina en 2012 proclamando que la industria manufacturera es vital para el equilibrio económico de la UE, que hay que promoverla, e incluso marca un objetivo, precisamente del 20%, como contribución manufacturera a su PIB. Es decir, se da por asumido que los servicios no son un sustituto indefinido de la industria y que por tanto tienen un límite, lo que se contrapone frontalmente contra la anterior creencia de que el aumento de la participación de los servicios en la economía, no solo era bueno, sino un síntoma de desarrollo. Esta premisa ya ha dejado de ser cierta para esos y otros países. En cambio, en España nada de esto sucede en las dos últimas décadas, sino que la industria manufacturera no recibe especial atención de los poderes públicos y se desliza en una pendiente de disminución de su contribución al PIB, que incluso se acelera con la crisis económica que comienza en 2007, hasta alcanzar cifras del orden del 12% del PIB en 2013. La política económica que se aplica es la de la deflación de costes, con los efectos consecuentes sobre los salarios y sobre la capacidad de la economía de generar riqueza. Se apuesta por un modelo de mano de obra barata, que recuerda al de los años 60. Como indicador relevante de esta situación, lo que exporta la industria manufacturera española, no ha ganado en contenido tecnológico en los últimos quince años. Esta situación se ve empeorada por un hecho significativo adicional, y es que casi el 40% de las ventas de la industria manufacturera española provienen de empresas de propiedad extranjera, con lo que eso supone por una parte de dependencia tecnológica del exterior como en el caso del automóvil, y de incertidumbre sobre su futuro, al estar basadas en el mantenimiento en el futuro de una mano de obra barata, que frenará que los españoles que trabajan en esas empresas, progresen económicamente. La propuesta de esta Tesis, es en cambio apostar por un modelo de crecimiento para España que tenga como uno de sus pilares el desarrollo de una industria manufacturera sólida y con cada vez mayor contenido tecnológico. Para ello, se propone un Plan de política industrial, donde se incluye la creación de actores impulsores de este plan, que deben ser del máximo nivel político. Si los diferentes gobiernos no entienden y asumen esta necesidad de apoyo a la industria a largo plazo e independiente de los cambios políticos, no será posible llevar a cabo este Plan. Para su puesta en marcha, se propone la creación o refuerzo de numerosos instrumentos de apoyo a la industria manufacturera de carácter fundamentalmente horizontal que van mucho más allá de los habituales del I+D, y que en varios casos, tienen una clara semejanza con otros existentes ya en otros países desarrollados desde hace años. La promoción de la industria manufacturera necesita nuevos instrumentos, como una financiación a largo plazo para las empresas, una promoción ordenada y eficaz de la actividad internacional de las empresas exportadoras, la mayoría de las cuales exportan productos manufacturados, una educación y formación profesional que esté alineada con estos objetivos, unos instrumentos que apoyen en especial el desarrollo la industria manufacturera, o la participación minoritaria pero significativa, del Estado en empresas españolas pertenecientes a sectores estratégicos entre otros. En resumen, esta Tesis propone una alternativa de política económica radicalmente diferente a la de dejar la industria manufacturera española a su suerte, y basar el futuro económico de España en una mano de obra barata. ABSTRACT The empirical evidence, applied to countries of certain size and economic development, shows that there exists a direct and positive relationship between industrial manufacturing activity, measured as a percentage of GDP, and certain economic variables, such as growth, unemployment and the foreign balance of trade. In the case of the latter, it is verified empirically that the countries with a percentage of manufacturing activity below 20% have a marked tendency for chronic deficits of the balance of trade, leading to persistent deficits in the current account, being that the former deficit is the main component of the latter. This brings about a continued increase in foreign debt that does not cease, and that will end at some point by disrupting the economy of the countries with these chronic deficits. The previous conclusions open the way to a new direction for economic policy, which promotes industrial manufacturing in each country. This is already a fact in 2014. Relevant countries, such as Germany or France in the EU, even the US and ultimately the UK, and of course countries of East Asia such as Japan, South Korea and China, have been promoting their industrial manufacturing for years. It becomes significant that the ideological debate about the goodwill of the application of industrial policy by governments, against liberal theories that maintain public powers far from these kinds of activities, has taken a step towards a horizontal-cut generalized model, where countries, with almost no exception, rely on various instruments to develop their companies that go much further than the usual R&D. Industrial manufacture is therefore valued as vital for economic stability. Even the EU, proponent for decades of non-intervention policy that goes beyond R&D, has gone full circle, ending in 2012 by proclaiming that industrial manufacture is vital for the economic stability of the EU, that it must be promoted. They even mark precisely 20% as an objective for manufacturing as a percentage of GDP. In other words, it is a given that services are not an indefinite substitute for industry, and that therefore it has a limit as such. This rejects the notion that the increase in services at the cost of manufacture is not only healthy, but is also a symptom of development. This premise is no longer true for these and other countries. On the other hand, none of this happens in Spain, where industrial manufacture receives no special attention from the public authorities, and it slides on a downward slope of percentage contribution to GDP, which accelerates the economic crisis that begins in 2007, until manufacture reaches values of around 12% of GDP in 2013. The economic policy applied is that of cost deflation, with consequential effects on wages and the capacity of the economy to generate wealth. A model is proposed for cheaper labor, akin to that of the 1960s. As a relevant indicator of this situation, manufacturing exports from Spain have not grown technologically in the last 15 years. The situation is made worse by another significant fact: almost 40% of sales of the manufacturing industry originate from companies of foreign origin, which supposes on one hand a technological dependence on foreign countries, such as in the case of the automotive industry, and on the other hand uncertainty in its future, being that they are based on maintaining cheap labor in the future, which will slow economic progress of Spaniards working in these companies. The proposition of this Thesis is to bet on a growth model for Spain that has as one of its pillars the development of a solid manufacturing industry, with increasing technological content. For this, an industrial policy plan is proposed, which includes the creation of driving agents for this plan, which must be of maximum political level. If the various governments don’t understand and assume this necessity for support of industry in the long term, independent of political change, this plan will not be accomplished. To start it, the creation or reinforcement of numerous instruments to promote the manufacturing activities are proposed, with a fundamentally horizontal nature that goes far beyond the usual R&D, and that, in several cases, have a clear similarity with others existing in other countries, having been developed for years. The promotion of the manufacturing industry needs new instruments, such as the long-term financing of companies, an orderly and efficient promotion of international activity of exporting companies, the most of which export manufactured goods, education and professional training which is in tune with these objectives, some instruments which support in particular the development of the manufacturing industry, or the minor yet significant participation of the State in Spanish companies belonging to strategic sectors, among others. In summary, this Thesis proposes an different alternative to the economic policy of leaving the manufacturing industry of Spain to its chances, and to base the economic future of Spain on a cheaper labor force.

Electric current of an electrified jet issuing from a long metallic tube.

This paper presents an analysis of the transport of electric current in a jet of an electrically conducting liquid discharging from a metallic tube into a gas or a vacuum, and subject to an electric field due to a high voltage applied between the tube and a far electrode. The flow, the surface charge and the electric field are computed in the current transfer region of the jet, where conduction current in the liquid becomes surface current due to the convection of electric charge accumulated at its surface. The electric current computed as a function of the flow rate of the liquid injected through the tube increases first as the square root of this flow rate, levels to a nearly constant value when the flow rate is increased and finally sets to a linear increase when the flow rate is further increased. The current increases linearly with the applied voltage at small and moderate values of this variable, and faster than linearly at high voltages. The characteristic length and structure of the current transfer region are determined. Order-of-magnitude estimates for jets which are only weakly stretched by the electric stresses are worked out that qualitatively account for some of the numerical results.

Magneto-optic current sensor with Faraday mirror for linear birefringence compensation

Fiber optic sensors have some advantages in subjects related with electrical current and magnetic field measurement. In spite of the optical fiber utilization advantages we have to take into account undesirable effects, which are present in real non-ideal optical fibers. In telecommunication and sensor application fields the presence of inherent and induced birefringence is crucial. The presence of birefringence may cause an undesirable change in the polarization state. In order to compensate the linear birefringence a promising method has been chosen. This method employs orthogonal polarization conjugation in the back propagation direction of the light wave in the fiber. A study and a simulation of an experimental setup are realized with the advantage of a significant sensitivity improvement.

Magnetic self-field effects on bare-tether current collection

It has been recently suggested that the magnetic field created by the current in a bare tether could sensibly reduce its electron collection capability in the magnetised ionosphere, a region of closed magnetic surfaces disconnecting the cylinder from infinity. In this paper, the ohmic voltage drop along the tether is taken into account in considering self-field effects. Separate analyses are carried out for the thrust and power generation and drag modes of operation, which are affected in different ways. In the power generation and drag modes, bias decreases as current increases along the tether, starting at the anodic, positively-biased end (upper end in the usual, eastward-flying spacecraft); in the thrust mode of operation, bias increases as current increases along the tether, starting at the lower end. When the ohmic voltage drop is considered, self-field effects are shown to be weak, in all cases, for tape tethers, and for circular cross-section tethers just conductive in a thin outer layer. Self-field effects might become important, in the drag case only, for tethers with fully conductive cross sections that are unrealistically heavy.

Tuning the current ratio of a CPV system to maximize the energy harvesting in a particular location

A method based on experimental data is proposed to optimize the energy harvesting of a silicone-on-glass Fresnel-lens based CPV system. It takes into account the spectral variations along the year in a particular location as well as the thermal and spectral sensitivities of the optics and solar cell. In addition, different alternatives to tune the top/middle subcells current ratio in a CPV module are analyzed and their capacity to maximize the annually produced energy is quantified.

Las teorías del gótico y su representación gráfica en España el último tercio del siglo XIX. Un estudio sobre: Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain, de George Edmund Street

La tesis se centra en el estudio, descripción y análisis del libro publicado por el arquitecto británico George Edmund Street en 1865, bajo el título Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain. El libro dio a conocer una de la colecciones más importantes de dibujos realizada en el siglo XIX sobre la arquitectura gótica española, y por lo tanto fue una primera referencia para su estudio, hasta bien entrado el siglo veinte. El volumen incluyó 107 grabados de diversos tipos de edificios con perspectivas y detalles, y 25 láminas con 45 planos de plantas de iglesias y claustros, muchos de ellos publicados por primera vez. Gracias a varias campañas de verano por la mitad norte del país, la casi inexplorada -desde un punto de vista académico- arquitectura española medieval fue finalmente descubierta. Este hecho conduce a una pregunta intrigante que está en el origen de esta investigación ¿cómo pudo Street en pocos viajes sentar las bases de la historia del gótico español que hasta entonces los estudiosos españoles no habían sido capaces de definir? Esta tesis comienza describiendo la obra de Street en su contexto cultural con un breve repaso a su biografía y a su posición profesional y teórica. También su relación con las personas más representativas que participaron en el estudio de la arquitectura gótica, como Robert Willis, William Whewell, Augustus Pugin, o George G. Scott. Se ha prestado especial atención, en explicar su papel relevante en el Gothic Revival, para entender el significado de su interés en la arquitectura gótica continental. Estos capítulos preliminares son seguidos por una revisión del papel del dibujo como herramienta para la arquitectura de los viajeros en sus rutas en busca de la arquitectura gótica. También se trata la influencia de la Royal Academy y sus académicos, (entre los cuales estuvo Street) y su formación académica. Finalmente la tesis entra en el estudio de los planos arquitectónicos que Street hizo durante sus viajes continentales de arquitectura, seguido por una descripción detallada de sus dibujos de España, analizando su método, su técnica, y las nuevas características aportadas, que fueron una novedad en el contexto español. También se lleva a cabo algunos estudios comparativos de los dibujos de España, gracias a una recopilación exhaustiva de bocetos y dibujos originales de Street, que en su gran mayoría se conservan en los archivos del RIBA, cotejándolos con sus versiones finales, con dibujos de la época de otros autores sobre los mismos edificios, y con fotos recientes. La tesis deja claro por qué y cómo Street, gracias a su soporte teórico y habilidades para el dibujo, pudo realizar algo que había pasado desapercibido para los estudiosos españoles de la época (construcción, historia de los estilos, señalamiento de períodos constructivos), lo que le permitió encontrar el lugar adecuado de la arquitectura gótica española en la historia y en el mapa de la arquitectura gótica europea. ABSTRACT This thesis focuses on the study, description and analysis of the book published by the British architect George Edmund Street in 1865, under the title Some Account of Gothic Architecture in Spain. The book displayed one of the most significant collections of drawings on Spanish Gothic Architecture made in the nineteenth century, and therefore was a first reference for its study, until well into the twentieth century. The book included 107 engravings, the surveying of various types of buildings with perspectives and details, and 25 sheets containing 45 ground plans of churches and cloisters, many of them new and published for the first time. Thanks to several summer campaigns in the north half of the country, the almost unexplored -from a scholar point of view- medieval Spanish architecture was eventually revealed. This fact lead to an intriguing question that is at the origin of this research: how could Street in a few trips lay the foundations of the history of Spanish Gothic that until then Spanish scholars had not been able to define? This thesis begins inscribing this Street's work in his cultural context. A brief review of his biography and professional and theoretical positions has been seen as necessary. Also his debts and relationship with the most representative people involved in the study of Gothic architecture, like Robert Willis, William Whewell, Augustus Pugin, or George G. Scott are discussed. Special attention has been paid, taken into account his relevant role in the Gothic Revival, to understand the significance of his interest in continental Gothic architecture. These preliminary chapters are followed by a review of role of drawing as a tool for Architectural travellers in their Tours in search of the Gothic architecture. The influence of the Royal Academy and its academicians, (among which was Street) and his educational background are here tackled. Eventually this thesis enters into the study of the architectural drawings Street made during his continental architectural journeys, which is followed by a detailed description and analysis of the Spanish ones: his methods, his technique, and the new features which were a novelty in the Spanish context are explored. Also in this thesis is carried out some comparative studies thanks to a previous exhaustive gathering of Street's sketches and original drawings, most of which are preserved in the RIBA archives. Their final versions, drawings of the same buildings from other contemporary draughtsman and pictures of their current state are compared with them. This thesis makes clear why and how Street thanks to his theoretical back-ground and portraying skills could realize what have passed unnoticed by contemporary Spanish scholars (construction, genealogy of forms, dating of periods) allowing him to find the proper place of the Spanish architecture in the history and the map of European Gothic architecture.