Analysis of the Behaviour of Biofuel-Fired Gas Turbine Power Plants

The utilisation of biofuels in gas turbines is a promising alternative to fossil fuels for power generation. It would lead to significant reduction of CO2 emissions using an existing combustion technology, although significant changes seem to be needed and further technological development is necessary. The goal of this work is to perform energy and exergy analyses of the behaviour of gas turbines fired with biogas, ethanol and synthesis gas (bio-syngas), compared with natural gas. The global energy transformation process (i.e. from biomass to electricity) has also been studied. Furthermore, the potential reduction of CO2 emissions attained by the use of biofuels has been determined, considering the restrictions regarding biomass availability. Two different simulation tools have been used to accomplish the aims of this work. The results suggest a high interest and the technical viability of the use of Biomass Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (BIGCC) systems for large scale power generation.

Implications of biofuel support policies in Europe - a quantitative analysis in an open economy

EU biofuels support Biofuels modelling with CAPRI Scenario setting Main results Concluding remarks Biofuels production and use will remain mainly driven by public support Strong links of biofuels to agricultural markets Development of second generation technologies would ease food-fuel links

Methodology to assess EU Biofuel Policies: The CAPRI Approach

This report is based on the outcome of a study carried out by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre - Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (JRC-IPTS, Spain) in cooperation with EuroCARE (Bonn, Germany). The report provides a detailed description of the methodology developed to assess the implications of the European Renewable Energy Directive on the agricultural sector, with an explicit focus on regional effects of biofuel targets in the EU. For the analysis, the spatial agricultural sector model CAPRI has been extended to include a global representation of biofuel markets (with endogenous supply, demand and trade flows for biofuels and biofuel feedstocks) while keeping the focus on regional impacts in the EU. The model is capable to simulate the impacts of EU biofuel policies on food production and prices, the potential use of by-products in the feed chain, the increasing pressure on marginal and idle land and the share of imported biofuels (self-sufficiency indicators). CAPRI is now able to jointly assess biofuel and agricultural policies, including policy instruments defined at the Member State level. The CAPRI biofuel module allows for a detailed analysis of most relevant biofuel support instruments like consumer tax exemptions, quota obligations, import tariffs and other trade measures. Additionally, the model allows for analysing scenarios regarding technical progress in 2nd generation technologies for biofuels.

Impacts of the EU Biofuel Target on Agricultural Markets and Land Use - A Comparative Modelling Assessment

The Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC) requires that 20% of the EU's energy needs should come from renewable sources by 2020, and includes a target for the transport sector of 10% from biofuels. This report analyses and discusses the global impacts of this biofuel target on agricultural production, markets and land use, as simulated by three agricultural sector models, AGLINK-COSIMO, ESIM and CAPRI. The impacts identified include higher EU production of ethanol and biodiesel, and of the crops used to produce them, as well as more imports of both biofuels. Trade flows of biofuel feedstocks also change to reflect greater EU demand, including a significant increase in vegetable oil imports. However, as the extra demand is small in world market terms, the impact on world market prices is limited. With the EU biofuel target, global use of land for crop cultivation is higher by 5.2 million hectares. About one quarter is area within the EU, some of which would otherwise have left agriculture.

Effect of starch substitution with crude glycerol on growing rabbit and lactating doe performance

The aim of this work was to study the effect of dietary inclusion of 2.5 or 5.0% of glycerol in substitution for starch on performance of lactating does and fattening rabbits. Over four consecutive reproductive cycles, a total of 81 New Zealand ´ Californian rabbit does and 813 young rabbits weaned at 25 (fattening trial 1) or 35 (fattening trial 2) days of age were allocated at random to the experimental treatments. Inclusion of glycerol in the diet up to 5% did not influence total feed consumption of does and suckling rabbits, body weight and bioelectrical impedance of does at parturition or at day 21 of lactation and litter weight at weaning, or reproductive efficiency. Substitution of starch with glycerol did not affect feed intake, weight gain or mortality during fattening. The results of the current study indicate that crude glycerol from the biofuel industry can be used at levels up to 5% in rabbit diets without any detrimental or beneficial effect on performance

Estudio técnico-económico de una planta de producción de biodiesel

Se explica las posibles razones que han obligado a varias de las plantas de biodiésel en España a cerrar a pesar de estar siendo auspiciadas por la Unión Europea y fomentadas, mediante normativas específicas y ayudas sustanciales en cada uno de los países miembros, a fin de reforzar la utilización de los biocarburantes, como energía alternativa a los combustibles fósiles, debido a las ventajas medioambientales y sociopolíticas que conllevan. Para ello se ha empezado realizando un estudio del sector y de su funcionamiento así como de la evolución reciente del mercado tanto en Europa como en España. Posteriormente se ha modelizado una planta de biodiesel tipo desde las primeras fases de su construcción hasta su puesta en funcionamiento, para, a continuación analizar su desarrollo haciendo especial hincapié en la evolución de las principales variables económicas anteriormente estudiadas que han llevado finalmente a tener que cerrarla por falta de rentabilidad. El proceso de producción del biodiésel desde aceites vegetales y grasas animales mantiene un fuerte crecimiento en los mercados de la Unión Europea al igual que en Estados Unidos y Canadá. La producción de biodiésel se ha incrementado rápidamente en los últimos años, ya que es una alternativa renovable a los carburantes, como el petróleo o el diésel. La producción por trasesterificación de aceites vegetales y grasas animales, dan al biodiésel una densidad, un punto de encendido, viscosidad, estabilidad a la oxidación similares al diésel. Estas propiedades permiten a la mezcla de biodiésel poder usarlo en motores convencionales sin necesidad de grandes modificaciones. El objetivo fundamental de este proyecto es, dentro de un entorno económico hostil, explicar el posible porqué de la situación de las plantas de biodiésel en España, haciendo un análisis de la viabilidad económico – financiera de una planta de producción de biodiésel. La instalación de la que parte el presente proyecto es la de una planta, situada en la provincia de Jaén, con una capacidad de producción de 100 000 t/año, con una previsión de funcionamiento continua y con una vida útil estimada de 15 años. Una vez finalizado el estudio económico, se ha valorado el impacto del mercado en el funcionamiento de la planta, tanto a nivel internacional debido a la competencia desleal, como nacional, debido a las ayudas en los cultivos. Se deduce que la rentabilidad de una planta de biodiésel es relativamente positiva pero viene dada por un gran número de variables internas y externas que hacen un negocio inestable y poco rentable. ABSTRACT It explains the possible reasons that have forced several biodiesel plants in Spain to close in spite of being sponsored by the European Union and promoted by specific regulations and substantial aid in each of the member countries to strengthen the use of biofuels as alternative energy to fossil fuels because of the environmental and sociopolitical involving VII For this we have begun a study of the sector and its operation as well as the recent market developments in Europe and in Spain. Later was modeled biodiesel plant type from the early stages of construction to commissioning, to then analyze its development with particular emphasis on the evolution of the main economic variables that have been previously studied eventually have to close by unprofitability. The processes and production of biodiesel (methyl ester) from vegetable oil and animal fat feedstocks remain a strong growth market in the European Union as well as the United States and Canada. Biodiesel production has increased rapidly in this last years as producers sought a renewable alternative to petroleum fuel. Produced by the trans-esterification of vegetable oils and animal fats, biodiesel has similar density, flash point, viscosity, oxidation stability to petroleum diesel. These similarities enable biodiesel blends to be used in conventional diesel engines without significant modifications. This proyect gives an overview of current developments with regard to biodiesel technology, the Spain biofuel market, and national biofuel policies, looking at closely the economic-financial feasibility of a biodiesel production plant. The installation, situated at Linares (Jaén), has a production capability of 100 000 t/year. The operation estimated is constant and with a product life of 15 years. Finished the part destined to the economic view of this project, it has been considered the adverse effects on the overall performance and the financial situation of the industry. It follows form the study that biodiesel plant´s profitability is relatively high, but it is given by a large numbers of variables, internals and externals, which have made an unviable and unsustainable business.

Evaluation of Spain's Water-Energy Nexus

This paper explores the water-energy nexus of Spain and offers calculations for both the energy used in the water sector and the water required to run the energy sector. The article takes a prospective approach, offering evaluations of policy objectives for biofuels and expected renewable energy sources. Approximately 5.8% of total electricity demand in Spain is due to the water sector. Irrigated agriculture is one of the Spanish water sectors that show the largest growth in energy requirements. Searches for more efficient modes of farm water use, urban waste water treatment, and the use of desalinated water must henceforth include the energy component. Furthermore, biofuel production, to the levels targeted for 2020, would have an unbearable impact on the already stressed water resources in Spain. However, growing usage of renewable energy sources is not threatened by water scarcity, but legislative measures in water allocation and water markets will be required to meet the requirements of using these sources. Some of these measures, which are pushed by regional governments, are discussed in concluding sections.

Localización óptima de una planta de bioetanol a partir de tubérculos de pataca (Helianthus tuberosus l.) en la Cuenca del Duero

El objetivo del presente trabajo es determinar la localización óptima de una planta de producción de 30.000 m3/año de bioetanol a partir de tubérculos de pataca (Helianthus tuberosus L.) cultivada en regadío, en tierras de barbecho de la Cuenca Hidrográfica del Duero (CH Duero). Inicialmente se elaboró, a partir de datos bibliográficos, un modelo de producción de pataca en base a una ecuación de regresión que relaciona datos experimentales de rendimientos de variedades tardías con variables agroclimáticas. Así se obtuvo una función de producción basada en la cantidad de agua disponible (precipitación efectiva + dosis de riego) y en la radiación global acumulada en el periodo brotación‐senescencia del cultivo. A continuación se estima la superficie potencial de cultivo de pataca en la CH Duero a partir de la superficie arable en regadío cartografiada por el Sistema de Ocupación del Suelo (SIOSE), a la cual se le aplican, en base a los requerimientos del cultivo, unas restricciones climáticas, edafológicas, topográficas y logísticas mediante el uso de Sistemas de Información Geográfica (SIG). La proporción de superficie de regadío restringida se cuantifica a escala municipal con el fin de calcular la superficie de barbecho en regadío apta para el cultivo de pataca. A partir de las bases de datos georreferenciadas de precipitación, radiación global, y la dotación de agua para el riego de cultivos no específicos establecida en el Plan Hidrológico de la Cuenca del Duero a escala comarcal, se estimó la producción potencial de tubérculos de pataca sobre la superficie de barbecho de regadío según el modelo de producción elaborado. Así, en las 53.360 ha de barbecho en regadío aptas para el cultivo de pataca se podrían producir 3,8 Mt de tubérculos al año (80 % de humedad) (761.156 t ms/año) de los que se podría obtener 304.462 m3/año de bioetanol, considerando un rendimiento en la transformación de 12,5 kg mf/l de etanol. Se estiman los costes de las labores de cultivo de pataca así como los costes de la logística de suministro a una planta de transformación considerando una distancia media de transporte de 25 km, en base a las hojas de cálculo de utilización de aperos y maquinaria agrícola oficiales del Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente (MAGRAMA). Considerando el balance de costes asociados a la producción de bioetanol (costes de transformación, distribución y transporte del producto, costes estructurales de la planta, ahorro de costes por la utilización de las vinazas generadas en el proceso como fertilizante y un beneficio industrial), se ha estimado que el coste de producción de bioetanol a partir de tubérculos de pataca asciende a 61,03 c€/l. Se calculan los beneficios fiscales para el Estado por el cultivo de 5.522 ha de pataca que suministren la materia prima necesaria para una planta de bioetanol de 30.000 m3/año, en concepto de cotizaciones a la Seguridad Social de los trabajadores, impuestos sobre el valor añadido de los productos consumidos, impuesto sobre sociedades y ahorro de las prestaciones por desempleo. Se obtuvieron unos beneficios fiscales de 10,25 c€ por litro de bioetanol producido. El coste de producción de bioetanol depende del rendimiento de tubérculos por hectárea y de la distancia de transporte desde las zonas de producción de la materia prima hasta la planta. Se calculó la distancia máxima de transporte para que el precio de coste del bioetanol producido sea competitivo con el precio de mercado del bioetanol. Como resultado se determinó que el precio del bioetanol (incluido un beneficio industrial del 15%) de la planta sería igual o inferior al precio de venta en el mercado (66,35 c€/l) con una distancia máxima de transporte de 25 km y un rendimiento mínimo del cultivo de 60,1 t mf/ha. Una vez conocido el área de influencia de la planta según la distancia de transporte máxima, se determinó la localización óptima de la planta de producción de bioetanol mediante un proceso de ubicación‐asignación realizado con SIG. Para ello se analizan los puntos candidatos a la ubicación de la planta según el cumplimiento de unos requerimientos técnicos establecidos (distancia a fuentes de suministro eléctrico y de recursos hídricos, distancia a estaciones de ferrocarril, distancia a núcleos urbanos y existencia de Espacios Naturales Protegidos) que minimizan la distancia de transporte maximizando la cantidad de biomasa disponible según la producción potencial estimada anteriormente. Por último, la superficie destinada al cultivo de pataca en el área de influencia de la planta se determina en base a un patrón de distribución del cultivo alrededor de una agroindustria. Dicho patrón se ha obtenido a partir del análisis del grado de ocupación del cultivo de la remolacha en función de la distancia de transporte a la planta azucarera de Miranda de Ebro (Burgos). El patrón resultante muestra que la relación entre el grado de ocupación del suelo por el cultivo y la distancia de transporte a la planta siguen una ecuación logística. La localización óptima que se ha obtenido mediante la metodología descrita se ubica en el municipio leonés de El Burgo Ranero, donde la producción potencial de tubérculos de pataca en la superficie de barbecho situada en un radio de acción de 25 km es de 375.665 t mf/año, superando las 375.000 t mf requeridas anualmente por la planta de bioetanol. ABSTRACT Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) is a harsh crop with a high potential for biomass production. Its main use is related to bioethanol production from the carbohydrates, inulin mainly, accumulated in its tubers at the end of the crop cycle. The aerial biomass could be used as solid biofuel to provide energy to the bioethanol production process. Therefore, Jerusalem artichoke is a promising crop as feedstock for biofuel production in order to achieve the biofuels consumption objectives established by the Government of Spain (PER 2011‐2020 and RDL 4/2013) and the European Union (Directive 2009/28/EC). This work aims at the determination of the optimal location for a 30,000 m3/year bioethanol production plant from Jerusalem artichoke tubers in the Duero river basin. With this purpose, a crop production model was developed by means of a regression equation that relates experimental yield data of late Jerusalem artichoke varieties with pedo‐climatic parameters from a bibliographic data matrix. The resulting crop production model was based on the crop water availability (including effective rainfall and irrigation water supplied) and on global radiation accumulated in the crop emergence‐senescence period. The crop potential cultivation area for Jerusalem artichoke in the Duero basin was estimated using the georeferenced irrigated arable land from the “Sistema de Ocupación del Suelo” (SIOSE) of Spain. Climatic, soil, slope and logistic restrictions were considered by means of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). The limited potential growing area was then applied to a municipality scale in order to calculate the amount of fallow land suitable for Jerusalem artichoke production. Rainfall and global radiation georeferenced layers as well as data of irrigation water supply for crop production (established within the Duero Hydrologic Plan) were use to estimate the potential production of Jerusalem artichoke tubers in the suitable fallow land according to the crop production model. As a result of this estimation, there are 53,360 ha of fallow land suitable for Jerusalem artichoke production in the Duero basin, where 3.8 M t fm/year could be produced. Considering a bioethanol processing yield of 12.5 kg mf per liter of bioethanol, the above mentioned tuber potential production could be processed in 304,462 m3/year of bioethanol. The Jerusalem crop production costs and the logistic supply costs (considering an average transport distance of 25 km) were estimated according to official agricultural machinery cost calculation sheets of the Minister of Agriculture of Spain (MAGRAMA). The bioethanol production cost from Jerusalem artichoke tubers was calculated considering bioethanol processing, transport and structural costs, industrial profits as well as plant cost savings from the use of vinasses as fertilizer. The resulting bioetanol production cost from Jerusalem artichoke tubers was 61.03 c€/l. Additionally, revenues for the state coffers regarding Social Security contributions, added value taxes of consumed raw materials, corporation tax and unemployment benefit savings due to the cultivation of 5,522 ha of Jerusalem artichoke for the 30.000 m3/year bioethanol plant supply were calculated. The calculated revenues amounted to 10.25 c€/l. Bioethanol production cost and consequently the bioethanol plant economic viability are strongly related to the crop yield as well as to road transport distance from feedstock production areas to the processing plant. The previously estimated bioethanol production cost was compared to the bioethanol market price in order to determine the maximum supply transport distance and the minimum crop yield to reach the bioethanol plant economic viability. The results showed that the proposed plant would be economically viable at a maximum transport distance of 25 km and at a crop yield not less than 60.1 t fm/ha. By means of a GIS location‐allocation analysis, the optimal bioethanol plant location was determined. Suitable candidates were detected according to several plant technical requirements (distance to power and water supply sources, distance to freight station, and distance to urban areas and to Natural Protected Areas). The optimal bioethanol plant location must minimize the supply transport distance whereas it maximizes the amount of available biomass according to the previously estimated biomass potential production. Lastly, the agricultural area around the bioethanol plant finally dedicated to Jerusalem artichoke cultivation was planned according to a crop distribution model. The crop distribution model was established from the analysis of the relation between the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) cropping area and the road transport distance from the sugar processing plant of Miranda de Ebro (Burgos, North of Spain). The optimal location was situated in the municipality of ‘El Burgo Ranero’ in the province of León. The potential production of Jerusalem artichoke tubers in the fallow land within 25 km distance from the plant location was 375,665 t fm/year, which exceeds the amount of biomass yearly required by the bioethanol plant.

Producción de biogás a partir de biomasa de la microalga scenedesmus sp. procedente de diferentes procesos

En este trabajo de Tesis Doctoral se ha estudiado la posibilidad de emplear las microalgas, concretamente el género Scenedesmus, como sustrato para la producción de biogás mediante digestión anaerobia, así como los residuos que se producen como consecuencia de su utilización industrial para diferentes fines. La utilización de las microalgas para la producción de biocombustibles es un tema de gran actualidad científica, en el que residen muchas expectativas para la producción a gran escala de biocombustibles que supongan una alternativa real a los combustibles fósiles. Existen numerosas investigaciones sobre la conversión a biogás de las microalgas, sin embargo aún hay poco conocimiento sobre la utilización de la digestión anaerobia como tratamiento de residuos de microalgas en un concepto de biorrefinería. Residuos que pueden ser generados tras la extracción de compuestos de alto valor añadido (p. ej. aminoácidos) o tras la generación de otro biocombustible (p. ej. biodiésel). Es en este aspecto en el que esta Tesis Doctoral destaca en cuanto a originalidad e innovación, ya que se ha centrado principalmente en tres posibilidades: - Empleo de Scenedesmus sp. como cultivo energético para la producción de biogás. - Tratamiento de residuos de Scenedesmus sp. generados tras la extracción de aminoácidos en un concepto de biorrefinería. - Tratamiento de los residuos de Scenedesmus sp. generados tras la extracción de lípidos en un concepto de biorrefinería. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que la microalga Scenedesmus como cultivo energético para producción de biogás no es viable salvo que se empleen pretratamientos que aumenten la biodegradabilidad o se realice codigestión con otro sustrato. En este último caso, la chumbera (Opuntia maxima Mill.) ha resultado ser un sustrato idóneo para la codigestión con microalgas, aumentando la producción de biogás y metano hasta niveles superiores a 600 y 300 L kgSV-1, respectivamente. Por otro lado, el tratamiento de residuos generados tras la extracción de aminoácidos mediante digestión anaerobia es prometedor. Se obtuvieron elevados rendimientos de biogás y metano en las condiciones de operación óptimas (409 y 292 L kgSV-1, respectivamente). Aparte de la generación energética por medio el metano, que podría emplearse en la propia biorrefinería o venderse a la red eléctrica o de gas natural, reciclando el digerido y el CO2 del biogás se podría llegar a ahorrar alrededor del 30% del fertilizante mineral y el 25% del CO2 necesarios para el cultivo de nueva biomasa. Por lo tanto, la digestión anaerobia de los residuos de microalgas en un concepto de biorrefinería tiene un gran potencial y podría contribuir en gran medida al desarrollo de esta industria. Por último, una primera aproximación al tratamiento de residuos generados tras la extracción de lípidos muestra que éstos pueden ser empleados para la producción de biogás, como monosustrato, o en codigestión con glicerina, ya que son fácilmente biodegradables y el rendimiento potencial de metano puede alcanzar 218 LCH4 kgSV-1 y 262 LCH4 kg SV-1 en monodigestión o en codigestión con glicerina, respectivamente. ABSTRACT This PhD thesis explores the possibility of using microalgae, specifically the strain Scenedesmus, as substrate for biogas production through anaerobic digestion, as well as the residues generated after its use in different industrial processes. The use of microalgae for biofuels production is an emerging scientific issue. The possibility of producing biofuels from microalgae as a real alternative for fossil fuels is raising high expectations. There are several research projects on the conversion of microalgae to biogas; however, there is little knowledge about using anaerobic digestion for treating microalgae residues in a biorefinery scheme. These residues could be generated after the extraction of high value compounds (e.g. amino acids) or after the production of another biofuel (e.g. biodiesel). It is in this area in which this PhD thesis stands in terms of originality and innovation, since it has focused primarily on three possibilities: - The use of Scenedesmus sp. as an energy crop for biogas production. - Treatment of amino acid extracted Scenedesmus residues generated in a biorefinery. - Treatment of lipid extracted Scenedesmus residues generated in a biorefinery. The results obtained in this work show that the use of Scenedesmus as energy crop for biogas production is not viable. The application of pretreatments to increase biodegradability or the codigestion of Scenedesmus biomass with other substrate can improve the digestion process. In this latter case, prickly pear (Opuntia maxima Mill.) is an ideal substrate for its codigestion with microalgae, increasing biogas and methane yields up to more than 600 and 300 L kgVS-1, respectively. On the other hand, the treatment of residues generated after amino acid extraction through anaerobic digestion is promising. High biogas and methane yields were obtained (409 y 292 L kgVS-1, respectively). Besides the energy produced through methane, which could be used in the biorefinery or be sold to the power or natural gas grids, by recycling the digestate and the CO2 30% of fertilizer needs and 25% of CO2 needs could be saved to grow new microalgae biomass. Therefore, the anaerobic digestion of microalgae residues generated in biorefineries is promising and it could play an important role in the development of this industry. Finally, a first approach to the treatment of residues generated after lipid extraction showed that these residues could be used for the production of biogas, since they are highly biodegradable. The potential methane yield could reach 218 LCH4 kgVS-1 when they are monodigested, whereas the potential methane yield reached 262 LCH4 kgVS-1 when residues were codigested with residual glycerin.

Sostenibilidad de los biocombustibles para autoconsumo en un entorno rural

Se busca relacionar dos sectores que sin tener a priori nada en común, pueden verse beneficiados por una solución que mejore la situación de ambos. Hablamos del sector biocombustibles y del sector algodonero español. El sector de los biocombustibles ha visto un desarrollo espectacular en los últimos diez años, empujado por fuertes políticas gubernamentales. En general estas políticas buscan satisfacer una necesidad, la energía, mediante fórmulas que supongan un menor impacto medioambiental que las actuales. También una disminución de la dependencia exterior para el suministro de energía y otras ventajas. El sector algodonero español es un sector tradicional, que subsiste gracias a las ayudas europeas, y que se ha visto fuertemente afectado por las reformas de esas subvenciones. Se caracteriza por estar en vías de amortizar fuertes inversiones en regadío, por ser viable en suelos con alta salinidad, y por el clima propio del sur de España. Al ser un cultivo no alimentario, se evita la controversia que suscita la producción de cultivos energéticos en suelos factibles de ser usados para producción alimentaria. Se propone la sustitución del algodón por el ricino, cultivo muy experimentado en otros países (Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina, Brasil, Chile e India) y que tendría buena acogida en la tierra andaluza. Se analizan las características del nuevo cultivo y su adecuación para esta región. Se estudian los procesos necesarios para la extracción del aceite y su procesamiento a biodiesel, con el dimensionamiento de los equipos necesarios. Por último, se realiza un estudio económico de la propuesta, haciendo hincapié en los beneficios económicos que se obtienen por la vía del ahorro, tanto en ayudas de la PAC (Política Agraria Común) de la UE (Unión Europea), cómo por la disponer de un producto, biodiesel, que de otro modo deberíamos satisfacer mediante la compra de combustible tradicional. Abstract This Project looks forward the relationship between two different sectors with different troubles in Spain, which could be benefited by a common solution. We are talking about biofuels and the cotton industry. The biofuels sector has been developed along the last ten years because of strong governmental policies. These policies try to find how to supply energy, with the less environmental impact, as well as to decrease the dependency of third countries, and other benefits. The Spanish cotton industry is traditional, it has survived because of the European grants, and it is passing through an uncertain scenario because of the alteration of these grants. It is characterized by the non amortized investment in irrigation, by the high salinity ratio in the ground (which means that is unable for a number of crops), and by weather of this Spanish region. As well as cotton is not a food crop, the controversial of to plant energetic crops in areas able to produce food is avoided. It is aimed to replace cotton with castor, an oilseed which has been experienced in other countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina, Brazil, Chile e India) and which could be accepted in that ground. It is analyzed the main features of the new drop and its ability to be planted in this area. The processes to obtain the oil and then the biofuel are studied. The equipment is sized. At least, it is developed an economic survey about the proposal, deepening in the benefits which are obtained because of savings, in European grants and in diesel.

Investigations on the distribution of air transport traffic and CO2 emissions within the European Union

This study analyses the structure of air traffic and its distribution among the different countries in the European Union, as well as traffic with an origin or destination in non-EU countries. Data sources are Eurostat statistics and actual flight information from EUROCONTROL. Relevant variables such as the number of flights, passengers or cargo tonnes and production indicators (RPKs) are used together with fuel consumption and CO2 emissions data. The segmentation of air traffic in terms of distance permits an assessment of air transport competition with surface transport modes. The results show a clear concentration of traffic in the five larger countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and UK), in terms of RPKs. In terms of distance the segment between 500 and 1000 km in the EU, has more flights, passengers, RTKs and CO2 emissions than larger distances. On the environmental side, the distribution of CO2 emissions within the EU Member States is presented, together with fuel efficiency parameters. In general, a direct relationship between RPKs and CO2 emissions is observed for all countries and all distance bands. Consideration is given to the uptake of alternative fuels. Segmenting CO2 emissions per distance band and aircraft type reveals which flights contribute the most the overall EU CO2 emissions. Finally, projections for future CO2 emissions are estimated, according to three different air traffic growth and biofuel introduction scenarios.