Interaction between karstic aquifers and allogenic rivers: the aquifer of the national park of the ephemeral river Lobos Canyon (Spain)

A methodology is described for understanding the interaction of karstic aquifers with allogenic rivers, where little information is available. This methodology includes conventional hydrogen- ology methods tracer tests and measurements of flow into, out of and circulating within the karstic system. The method is designed to un- derstand the hydrogeological behaviour of a river in sufficient detail, given a short study pe- riod. The methodology is applied to a karstic system in Spain, obtaining useful, quantitative results for a hydrological year, such as an esti- mate of the water balance, differentiation be- tween autogenic and allogenic natural recharge, relationship and connection between the river and the aquifer, and measurements of infiltration capacity in watercourses under different hydro- logical situations. The paper deals with a useful example that could be applied to other rivers and aquifers where few data are available. It can be applied to aquifers under a natural regime and Mediterranean climate.

Hidrogeología e hidrodinámica del acuífero de los manantiales de Gormaz y su importancia en el caudal base del río Duero, España = Hydrogeology and hydrodynamic of the Gormaz Springs Aquifer and its importance to the base flow of the Duero River, Spain

Se cuantifican las descargas subterráneas de un acuífero a un río que lo atraviesa utilizando correlaciones estadísticas. El río Duero, España, incrementa su caudal base en varios m3/s, al atravesar unos afloramientos carbonatados mesozoicos en un pequeño tramo de su cabecera; esto es de especial importancia en época de estiaje, cuando la mayor parte del caudal base del río procede de manantiales que allí se sitúan. Dichos afloramientos corresponden a uno de los dos acuíferos calcáreos confinados, que se desarrollan en paralelo y están hidráulicamente desconectados por una capa impermeable, que forman el sistema acuífero de los manantiales de Gormaz. Este sistema se encuentra en estado de régimen natural y está apenas explotado. Se define el modelo conceptual de funcionamiento hidrogeológico, considerando el papel hidrogeológico de la falla de Gormaz, situada en la zona de descarga del sistema. Analizando información geológica antecedente y la geofísica exploratoria realizada, se obtuvo un mejor conocimiento de la geometría y los límites de los acuíferos, definiéndose un sistema acuífero con una zona de recarga en el sur, correspondiente a los afloramientos calcáreos, los cuales se confinan hacia el norte bajo el Terciario, hasta intersecar con la falla normal de Gormaz. El salto de falla genera una barrera para las formaciones permeables situadas al extremo norte (margen derecha del río Duero); a su vez, el plano de falla facilita el ascenso del agua subterránea del sistema acuífero en estudio y pone en conexión hidráulica los dos acuíferos. Se estimaron, además, los parámetros hidráulicos de los acuíferos en los alrededores de la falla. La buena correlación entre los niveles piezométricos y las descargas subterráneas al río Duero han permitido la reconstrucción del hidrograma de los manantiales de Gormaz en el periodo 1992-2006. Se calcula así que la contribución subterránea al río Duero es de 135.9 hm3/año, que supone el 18.9% de la aportación total del río. In a short stretch of its headwaters, the base flow of the River Duero increases by several m3/s as it traverses some Mesozoic carbonate outcrops. This is of special importance during the dry season, when the majority of the base flow of the river proceeds from springs in this reach. The outcrops correspond to one of two confined calcareous aquifers that developed in parallel but which are not hydraulically connected because of an impermeable layer. Together, they constitute the aquifer system of the Gormaz Springs. The system is still in its natural regime and is hardly exploited. This study defines the conceptual model of hydrogeological functioning, taking into consideration the role of the Gormaz Fault, which is situated in the discharge zone of the system. Analysis of both antecedent geological information and geophysical explorations has led to a better understanding of the geometry and boundaries of the aquifers, defining an aquifer system with a recharge zone in the south corresponding to in the calcareous outcrops. These calcareous outcrops are confined to the north below Tertiary formations, as far as their intersection with the normal fault of Gormaz. The throw of the fault forms the barrier of the permeable formations situated in the extreme north (right bank of the River Duero). In turn, the fault plane facilitates the upflow of groundwater from the aquifer system and creates hydraulic connection between the two aquifers. In addition, the study estimated the hydraulic parameters of the aquifer around the fault. The close correlation between piezometric levels and the groundwater discharges to the River Duero has enabled the reconstruction of the hydrogram of Gormaz springs over the period 1992-2006. By this means, it is calculated that the groundwater contribution to the River Duero is 135.9 hm3/year, or 18.9% of the total river inflow.

Análisis de la técnica de recarga artificial en la Cubeta de Sant Andreu de la Barca (Barcelona)

El presente proyecto pretende mostrar las posibilidades de la recarga artificial como elemento de gestión de los recursos de agua subterránea del acuífero aluvial del río Llobregat, en su sector de la Cubeta de Sant Andreu de la Barca (Barcelona), el cual es fuente de abastecimiento urbano, agrícola e industrial del entorno de Sant Andreu de la Barca. Igualmente, se revisa la efectividad de la aplicación de dicha técnica que se practica actualmente. Hace años, las condiciones naturales del río hacían posible la recarga natural de la Cubeta, pero la implantación de industrias en la zona y la regulación mediante la presa de La Baells desde el año 1976, han originado cambios en el comportamiento natural del acuífero, que se han manifestado básicamente en una disminución de la recarga natural como consecuencia de la impermeabilización de los suelos originada por la urbanización de los mismos. Se ha producido también un fenómeno de colmatación del lecho del río, al dificultarse la removilización de los materiales finos depositados en el fondo del cauce, produciendo también una disminución de la recarga al acuífero a través del lecho. Por último, la mayor demanda de suministro por parte del sector industrial ha influido negativamente en el almacenamiento del acuífero. Desde hace décadas, se lleva efectuando una recarga artificial en el lecho del río para tratar de paliar en lo posible estos efectos perjudiciales. La misma se efectúa mediante dos sistemas distintos: escarificando el lecho del río para aumentar su capacidad de infiltración, y mediante la utilización de balsas de recarga, a través de las cuales se infiltra el agua en el acuífero. El objetivo de este proyecto es analizar el efecto actual que la recarga mediante balsas está teniendo sobre el acuífero. Para ello, se utilizarán, entre otras técnicas, la elaboración de un modelo matemático con el que poder simular el efecto de la recarga. VIII ABSTRACT This project aims to show the possibilities of artificial recharge as groundwater resources management element in the alluvial aquifer of the Llobregat River, in the sector of the Basin of Sant Andreu de la Barca (Barcelona), which is a source of urban, agricultural and industrial supply of the Sant Andreu de la Barca area. Too, the effectiveness of the current implementation of this technique is reviewed. Years ago, natural river conditions made possible the natural recharge of the aquifer, but the establishment of industries in the area and the river regulation by the la Baells dam since 1976, have led to changes in the natural behavior of the aquifer, which basically are a decrease in natural recharge, because the soil has become impervious, due to land urbanization. There has been also a phenomenon of clogging of the river bed, caused by the difficult in the remobilization of fine materials deposited on the river bed, which has produced a decrease in the groundwater recharge through the river. Finally, the increase in water demand by the industrial sector, has diminished aquifer storage. For decades, artificial recharge in the river bed has been practiced to alleviate negative effects. It is done by two different systems: scratching the river bed to increase its infiltration capacity, and using recharge ponds, through which water infiltrates into the aquifer. The objective of this project is to analyze the current effect that recharge by ponds is having in the aquifer. Among other techniques, mathematical modeling has been used for simulating the effect of artificial recharge in the aquifer.

Cálculo de la recarga natural en grandes áreas, en función de la litología y la precipitación = Calculation of natural recharge in large areas, as a function of lithology and rainfall

En una región amplia como España se demuestra —mediante inferencias estadísticas sobre una muestra completa de 875 manantiales en los que se conoce su caudal medio y la litología de su área de alimentación y que han sido agrupados en regiones de distinta pluviometría— que la recarga media anual es una fracción fija de la precipitación media para cada litología. Se han establecido así unas tasas de recarga respecto de la precipitación para seis grupos litológicos de diferente permeabilidad: arenas, gravas y formaciones aluviales en general, 8.3%; conglomerados, 5.6%; areniscas, 7.3%; calizas y dolomías, 34.3%; margas, margocalizas, limos y arcillas, 3.3%; otras rocas, 1.3%. Teniendo en cuenta la representatividad de España, la cual tiene una gran variabilidad de litología, pluviometría, topografía, etcétera, estas tasas de recarga respecto de la precipita-ción son probablemente valores cuasi universales que pueden ser utilizados para estimar la recarga media o los recursos hídricos subterráneos medios de regiones amplias en cualquier parte del mundo, salvo en regiones especiales, como las que tienen permafrost, por ejemplo. En todo caso, estas tasas de recarga podrían ser retocadas para cada región según sus particulares características. Los datos de precipitación y litología son muy corrientes, por lo que el método puede ser ampliamente utilizado para completar balances hidráulicos.In a region as large as Spain, annual mean recharge is shown to be a fixed proportion of the mean rainfall for each lithology. This determination is based on statistical inferences from a complete sample of 875 springs for which mean flow and catchment areas are known and which have been grouped into distinct rainfall regions. Recharge rates have thus been established with respect to rainfall for six lithological groups with different permeability: sands, gravels and generally alluvial formations, 8.3%; conglomerates, 5.6%; sandstones, 7.3%; limestone and dolomite 34.3%; marls, marly limestones, silts and clays, 3.3%; and hard rocks, 1.3%. Considering the representativeness of Spain, which is large in size and has a highly varied lithology, topography and rainfall, these recharge rates for rainfall are probably quasi-universal values that can be used to estimate average recharge or average groundwater resources of large regions in any part of the world (except in special cases such as areas with permafrost, for example). For any case, these recharge rates can be adapted to each region according to its particular characteristics. Rainfall and lithology data are very common, and so the method can be widely used to calculate hydraulic balances.

Comportamiento hidrológico de cuencas de media montaña españolas: efectos de los procesos de acumulación / fusión de nieve en terrenos permeables sobre la infiltración y régimen de caudales Alto Tajo

La infiltración de agua en el suelo y la recarga profunda del agua subterránea contenida en los acuíferos es un proceso lento en relación con otros fenómenos hidrológicos. La redacción de esta tesis ha pretendido contribuir al estudio de la influencia que el almacenamiento de la precipitación sólida en forma de manto de nieve y su eventual fusión puedan tener sobre dicho proceso en áreas de media montaña (1.000 – 2.000 m.) en las que con gran frecuencia se sitúan las cabeceras de los ríos peninsulares. Para ello se ha partido del análisis de las diferentes variables intervinientes durante un determinado periodo temporal y sobre un espacio geográfico concreto, por lo que su metodología es de naturaleza empírica. La extensión del periodo (2002/03 a 2010/11) ha venido condicionada por la disponibilidad de los valores de algunas de sus principales variables, como han sido el equivalente en agua de la nieve acumulada y los caudales procedentes de su fusión. Éstos se han obtenido como resultado de la aplicación del modelo ASTER, desarrollado en el programa de Evaluación de los Recursos Hídricos procedentes de la Innivación (ERHIN), calibrado – entre otros- con datos de precipitaciones, temperatura y caudales provenientes a su vez del Sistema Automático de Información Hidrológica (SAIH). Ambos programas fueron implantados por la Administración en las diferentes Confederaciones Hidrográficas y en determinados Organismos de cuenca actuales, en cuyo desarrollo participó el autor de esta tesis. En cuanto a la zona de estudio se ha procedido a su elección considerando las posibles áreas de media montaña en las que la presencia de la nieve fuera hidrológicamente significativa y estuvieran constituidas litológicamente por afloramientos permeables que no impidieran la infiltración en el terreno y la formación de acuíferos de cierta relevancia. El interés se centró discrecionalmente en la cuenca del Tajo, tanto por el carácter estratégico de la misma -como suministradora en la actualidad de excedentes a otras cuencas deficitarias- como por el valor representativo de sus condiciones climáticas y orográficas en relación con otras cuencas hidrográficas peninsulares. Para ello se partió de las cabeceras de ríos identificadas por el programa ERHIN por su interés nivológico para la implantación del modelo ASTER y de las Masas de Agua Subterráneas MASb (antes Unidades Hidrogeológicas UUHH) definidas en los planes hidrológicos. La intersección en el territorio de ambos criterios condujo, finalmente, a la zona del Alto Tajo, en la que se cumplen ambos requisitos. El tramo quedó concretado en el comprendido entre las cabeceras de los ríos Tajo y Guadiela y la cola de los embalses de Entrepeñas y Buendía respectivamente, puntos de cierre para la calibración llevada a cabo en la modelización ASTER. Gran parte de éste discurre, en su parte alta, sobre rocas carbonatadas (calizas y dolomías del Jurásico y Cretácico), relacionados con las MASb de Tajuña-Montes Universales, Molina de Aragón y Sigüenza-Maranchón. Los valores diarios de las reservas de agua en forma de nieve, evapotranspiración y caudales procedentes de la fusión se han obtenido a partir de los resultados del mencionado modelo, procediéndose al cálculo de la infiltración por balance hídrico durante el periodo de estudio considerado, teniendo en cuenta los valores de precipitación, evapotranspiración y aportaciones de caudales. Esto ha requerido el estudio previo de las condiciones hidrogeológicas de la zona seleccionada con objeto de conocer las posibles interconexiones subterráneas que pudieran alterar los saldos entre las variables intervinientes anteriormente citadas. Para ello se ha llevado a cabo la recopilación y análisis de la información hidrogeológica correspondiente a la documentación de los planes hidrológicos del Tajo (Plan Hidrológico de la cuenca del Tajo RD 1664/1998 y el actual Plan Hidrológico de la parte española de la Demarcación Hidrográfica del Tajo RD 270/2014) y de los estudios previos realizados por el organismo de cuenca y el Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (lGME) fundamentalmente. En relación con la MASb Tajuña-Montes Universales -cuya extensión supera la zona seleccionada- dichos estudios consideran su estructura geológica y distribución litológica, con intercalaciones impermeables que actúan como barreras, dividiendo a éstas en Subunidades e identificando las zonas de drenaje de sus respectivos acuíferos. También se ha considerado la documentación y estudios previos del Plan Hidrológico Nacional sobre las Unidades Hidrogeológicas compartidas entre ámbitos geográficos de diferentes planes hidrológicos. Se concluye que las divisorias hidrográficas de las cabeceras son sensiblemente coincidentes o abarcan las Subunidades Montes Universales meridionales, Priego, Cifuentes, Zaorejas, u Montes Universales septentrionales, que drenan hacia el Tajo/Guadiela (bien directamente, bien a través de afluentes como el Gallo, Ablanquejo, Cabrillas, Cuervo…), MASb Molina de Aragón, que drena al Tajo a través del río Gallo y MASb Sigüenza—Maranchón, que drena su parte correspondiente hacia el Tajo a través del Ablanquejo. Se descartan – salvo la pequeña salvedad del manantial de Cifuentes- las conexiones hidrogeológicas con otras MASb o Subunidades por lo que las cabeceras del Tajo y del Guadiela pueden considerarse como un Sistema independiente donde las precipitaciones no evaporadas escurren superficialmente o se infiltran y descargan hacia los embalses de Entrepeñas y Buendía. La cuantificación diaria y acumulada de los balances hídricos ha permitido calcular la evolución aproximada de las reservas de agua subterránea desde la fecha inicial. Originalmente los balances se realizaron de forma separada en las cabeceras del Tajo y del Guadiela, cuyos valores acumulados manifestaron una tendencia creciente en la primera y decreciente en la segunda. Dicha situación se equilibra cuando el balance se practica conjuntamente en ambas, apreciándose en la variación del volumen de agua subterránea una evolución acorde hidrológicamente con los ciclos de verano/invierno y periodos de sequía, manteniéndose sus valores medios a largo/medio plazo, poniendo en evidencia la existencia de interconexiones subterráneas entre ambas cuencas. El balance conjunto, agregando la cabecera del Tajuña (que también comparte los materiales permeables de la MASb Tajuña-Montes Universales) no reveló la existencia de nuevas interrelaciones hidrogeológicas que influyeran en los balances hídricos realizados Tajo/Guadiela, confirmando las conclusiones de los estudios hidrogeológicos anteriormente analizados. Se ha procedido a confrontar y validar los resultados obtenidos de la evolución de las reservas de agua subterránea mediante los siguientes procedimientos alternativos: - Cálculo de los parámetros de desagüe de la curva de agotamiento correspondiente al volumen de agua subterránea drenante hacia el Tajo/Guadiela. Éste se ha realizado a partir de las aportaciones mensuales entrantes en los embalses de Entrepeñas y Buendía durante los meses de junio, julio, agosto y septiembre, cuyos valores responden al perfil típico de descargas de un acuífero. A partir de éstos se ha determinado el volumen drenante correspondiente al primero de junio de cada año de la serie histórica considerada. - Determinación del caudal base por el método Wallingford y deducción de los volúmenes drenantes. Estimación de las recarga anuales - Cuantificación de la recarga anual por el método Sanz, Menéndez Pidal de Navascués y Távara. Se obtuvieron valores de recarga muy aproximados entre los calculados por los dos últimos procedimientos citados. Respecto a las reservas de agua subterránea almacenadas siguen una evolución semejante en todos los casos, lo que ha permitido considerar válidos los resultados conseguidos mediante balance hídrico. Confirmada su solidez, se han buscado correlaciones simples entre el volumen de las reservas subterráneas (como indicador estimativo del efecto de la infiltración) y los volúmenes procedentes de la fusión. La conclusión es que estos últimos no tienen un efecto determinante a escala anual sobre la infiltración,recarga y variación de los volúmenes de agua subterránea, frente al peso de otras variables (precipitación y evapotranspiración). No obstante se ha encontrado una buena correlación múltiple entre la recarga estimada y la precipitación eficaz (precipitación menos evapotranspiración) y fusión, que ha permitido cuantificar la contribución de esta última. Posteriormente se ha recurrido a la selección de los episodios más intensos de acumulación /fusión en las cabeceras del Tajo y Guadiela. Y se procedió a la comparación entre los resultados obtenidos por aplicación del modelo de simulación en los mismos periodos (normalmente de varios días de duración) con datos reales y con datos ficticios de temperatura que anularan o disminuyeran la presencia de nieve, apreciándose una gran sensibilidad del efecto de la temperatura sobre la evapotranspiración y estableciéndose nuevamente correlaciones lineales entre los volúmenes de fusión y el incremento de reservas subterráneas. Las mismas confirman el efecto “favorecedor” de la acumulación de agua en forma de nieve y su posterior licuación, sobre sobre la infiltración de agua en el suelo y almacenamiento subterráneo. Finalmente se establecieron varios escenarios climáticos (+1ºC; +3ºC; +1ºC y – 10% precipitación; y 3ºC – 10% precipitación) compatibles con las previsiones del IPCC para mediados y finales del presente siglo, determinándose mediante simulación ASTER los correspondientes valores de fusión. La correlación establecida a escala anual ha permitido evaluar el efecto de la disminución del volumen de fusión - en los diferentes escenarios – sobre la recarga, pronosticando un descenso de los caudales de estiaje y la desaparición del “efecto nieve” sobre la infiltración y recarga con un aumento de 3ºC de temperatura. Teniendo en cuenta las condiciones de representatividad de la zona elegida, resulta verosímil la extensión de las anteriores conclusiones a otras cabeceras fluviales enclavadas en áreas de media montaña situadas entre 1000 a 2000m y sus efectos aguas abajo.Water infiltration into the soil and groundwater recharge deep water in aquifers is slow relative to other hydrological phenomena. The wording of this thesis aims to contribute to the study of the influence that the storage of solid precipitation as snow cover and its eventual melting may have on this process in mid-mountain areas (1000 - 2,000 m) where very often the headwaters of the peninsular rivers are located. For this party analysis of the different variables involved has over a given time period and a particular geographical area, so that their methodology is empirical in nature. The extension of the period (2002/03 to 2010/11) has been conditioned by the availability of the values of some of its key variables, as were the water equivalent of the snow and flows from melting. These have been obtained as a result of the application of ASTER model, developed in the program Evaluation of Water Resources from the Innivation (ERHIN), calibrated - among others data of rainfall, temperature and flow from turn System Automatic Hydrological Information (SAIH). Both programs were implemented by the Administration in the different Water Boards and to undertakings for current basin, in which the author participated development of this thesis. As for the study area has proceeded at its option considering the possible areas of midmountain in the presence of snow outside hydrological meaningful and they were lithology consisting of permeable outcrops that did not prevent infiltration into the ground and forming aquifers of some significance. We were interested discretion in the Tagus basin, therefore the strategic nature of it, as currently supplying surplus to other basins deficit- as the representative value of its climate and terrain conditions in relation to other peninsular river basins . To do this we started from the headwaters identified by the ERHIN program for its implementation snow interest to the ASTER model and Ground Water Bodies MASb (before UUHH Hydrogeological Units) defined in hydrological plans. The intersection in the territory of both criteria led eventually to the Alto Tajo, in which both requirements are met. The section was finalized in the period between the headwaters of the Tagus and Guadiela rivers and reservoirs end Entrepeñas and Buendia respectively checking points for calibration performed in ASTER modeling. Much of it runs on carbonate rocks (limestones and dolomites of Jurassic and Cretaceous) related MASb of Tajuña -Montes Universal, Molina de Aragón and Sigüenza-Maranchón. The daily values of water reserves in the form of snow, evapotranspiration and flow from melting were obtained from the results of this model, proceeding to the calculation of infiltration water balance during the study period considered, taking into account values of precipitation, evapotranspiration and input flow. This has required the prior examination of the hydrogeological conditions of your required in order to know the possible underground interconnections that could alter the balance between the intervening variables aforementioned area. For this we have carried out the collection and analysis of hydrogeological information relevant documentation Tagus river management plans (Hydrological Plan Tajo Basin RD 1664/1998 and the current Hydrological Plan of the Spanish part of the River Basin Tagus RD 270/2014) and previous studies by the basin organization and the Geological Survey of Spain (IGME) mainly. Regarding the MASb Tajuña- Montes Universal - whose length exceeds the area selected - these studies consider its geological structure and lithology distribution with waterproof collations that act as barriers, dividing it into subunits and identifying areas draining their respective aquifers. It has also considered the documentation and previous studies of the National Hydrological Plan on shared among different geographical areas management plans Hydrogeological Units. We conclude that river dividing the headers are substantially coincident or covering Subunits southern Universal Montes, Priego Cifuentes, Zaorejas and northern Universal Mounts, which drain into the Tagus / Guadiela (either directly or through tributaries such as Gallo, Ablanquejo , whitecaps , Raven ...), MASb Molina de Aragón which drains through the Tajo del Gallo and MASb Sigüenza- Maranchón river that drains into the Tagus using the Ablanquejo . Discarded - except the small exception of spring Cifuentes -hydrogeological connections with other MASb or Subunits so the headwaters of the Tagus and Guadiela be considered as a separate system, where rainfall not evaporated runs on surface or infiltrates and eventually discharged into reservoirs Entrepeñas and Buendia. The daily and cumulative quantification of water balances allowed us to compute the approximate evolution of groundwater reserves from its initial date. Initially balances were performed separately in the headwaters of the Tagus and Guadiela, whose cumulative values showed an increasing trend in the first and decreasing in the second. This situation is balanced when the balance is practiced together in both , appreciating the change in volume of groundwater hydrological evolution commensurate with the cycles of summer / winter and drought periods , keeping their average long / medium term values and putting in shows the existence of underground interconnections between the two basins. The overall balance, adding header Tajuña (which also shares the permeable materials MASb Tajuña -Montes Universal ) did not reveal the existence of new hydrogeological interrelationships that influenced water balances made Tajo / Guadiela, confirming the findings of the hydrogeological studies previously analyzed. We proceeded to confront and validate the results of the evolution of groundwater reserves by the following alternative procedures: - Calculate the parameters drain depletion curve corresponding to the volume of groundwater draining into the Tajo / Guadiela. This has been made from monthly inflows in the reservoirs of Entrepeñas and Buendia during the months of June, July, August and September, whose values match the typical profile of an aquifer discharges. From these has been determined for the first of June each year of the time series considered drainage volume - Determination of base flow by Wallingford method and deduction of drainage volumes. Estimate of annual recharge - Quantification of the annual recharge by the method Sanz Menéndez Pidal of Navascués and Távara. Very approximate values recharge between calculated for the last two mentioned methods were obtained. Concerning groundwater reserves stored follow a similar pattern in all cases, allowing consider valid the results achieved through water balance. Confirmed its robustness, simple correlations were sought between the volume of groundwater reserves (as estimated indicator of the effect of infiltration) and volumes from the melting. The conclusion is that the latter do not have a decisive effect on the annual scale infiltration, recharge and variation in volumes of groundwater, against the weight of other variables (precipitation and evapotranspiration). However found a good multiple correlation between the estimated recharge and effective precipitation (precipitation minus evapotranspiration) and fusion, which allowed quantify the contribution of the latter. Subsequently it has resorted to the selection of the most intense episodes of accumulation / melting in the headwaters of the Tagus and Guadiela. And we proceeded to the comparison between the results obtained by application of the simulation model in the same periods (usually several days) with real data and fictitious temperature data to annul or decrease the presence of snow, appreciating a great sensitivity of the effect of temperature on evapotranspiration and establishing linear correlations between the volumes of melting and increased groundwater reserves again. They confirm the “flattering " effect of water accumulation as snow and subsequent liquefaction of the infiltration of water into the soil and underground storage. Finally various climate scenarios (+1ºC; +3ºC; +1ºC y – 10% precipitation; y 3ºC – 10% precipitation) were established consistent with IPCC projections for mid - to late - century, determined through simulation ASTER corresponding values of melting. The correlation established on an annual scale has allowed to evaluate the effect of decreasing the volume of melt - in different scenarios - on recharge, predicting a decline in low flows and the disappearance of "snow effect" on infiltration and recharge with an increase of 3°C temperature. Given the conditions of representativeness of the chosen area, plausible extension of the above findings to other landlocked headwaters in mid-mountain areas located between 1000 to 2000m and its downstream effects.

Desarrollo de métodos numérico-interpretativos para la realización de ensayos de bombeo

Los ensayos de bombeo son, sin lugar a dudas, una de las pruebas más fiables y de mayor interés que se hacen en el medio físico. No son pruebas estrictamente puntuales, dado que el bombeo atrae flujo desde distancias lejanas al pozo, la prueba tiene una excelente representatividad espacial. Los métodos de interpretación mediante ensayos de bombeo se empezaron a plantear en la primera mitad del pasado siglo. Con los ensayos de bombeo se puede calcular la transmisividad y coeficiente de almacenamiento de las formaciones acuíferas y suministran información sobre el tipo de acuífero, la calidad constructiva del pozo de extracción, la existencia de barreras impermeable o bordes de recarga próximos, e incluso en algunas circunstancias permiten el cálculo del área de embalse subterráneo. Desde mediados del siglo 20 existe una eficaz y abundante gama de métodos analítico-interpretativos de ensayos de bombeo, tanto en régimen permanente como transitorio. Estos métodos son ampliamente conocidos y están muy experimentados a lo largo de muchos países, sin embargo, hoy día, podrían utilizarse modelos de flujo para la interpretación, logrando la misma fiabilidad e incluso mejores posibilidades de análisis. Muchos ensayos que no pueden interpretarse porque las configuraciones del medio son demasiado complejas y no están disponibles, o no es posible, el desarrollo de métodos analíticos, tienen buena adaptación y en ocasiones muy fácil solución haciendo uso de los métodos numéricos de simulación del flujo. En esta tesis se ha buscado una vía de interpretar ensayos de bombeo haciendo uso de modelos de simulación del flujo. Se utiliza el modelo universal MODFLOW del United States Geological Survey, en el cual se configura una celda de simulación y mallado particularmente adecuados para el problema a tratar, se valida con los métodos analíticos existentes. Con la célula convenientemente validada se simulan otros casos en los que no existen métodos analíticos desarrollados dada la complejidad del medio físico a tratar y se sacan las oportunas conclusiones. Por último se desarrolla un modelo específico y la correspondiente aplicación de uso general para la interpretación numérica de ensayos de bombeo tanto con las configuraciones normales como con configuraciones complejas del medio físico. ABSTRACT Pumping tests are, without doubt, one of the most reliable and most interesting tests done in the physical environment. They are not strictly anecdotal evidence, since pumping flow attracts from far distances to the well, the test has excellent spatial representation. Methods of interpretation by pumping tests began to arise in the first half of last century. With pumping tests, can be calculated transmissivity and storage coefficient of the aquifer formations, and provide information on the type of aquifer, the construction quality of the well, the existence of waterproof barriers or borders next recharge, and even in some circumstances allow calculating the area of underground reservoir. Since the mid-20th century there is effective and abundant range of analytical interpretative pumping tests, both in steady state and transient methods. These methods are very widely known and experienced over many countries, however, nowadays, may flow models used for interpretation, obtaining equally reliable or even better possibilities for analysis. Many trials cannot be interpreted as environmental settings are too complex and are not available, or not possible, the development of analytical methods, have good adaptation and sometimes very easily solved using numerical flow simulation methods. This thesis has sought a way to interpret pumping tests using flow simulation models. MODFLOW universal model of United States Geological Survey, in which a simulation cell and meshing particularly suitable for the problem to be treated, is validated with existing analytical methods used is set. With suitably validated cell other cases where there are no analytical methods developed given the complexity of the physical environment to try and draw appropriate conclusions are simulated. Finally, a specific model and the corresponding application commonly used for numerical interpretation of pumping tests both with normal settings as complex configurations of the physical environment is developed.

Optimización del Abonado Nitrogenado en el Melón (Cucumis Melo L.) Tipo Piel de Sapo

Spain is the fifth-largest producer of melon (Cucumis melo L.) and the second exporter in the world. To a national level, Castilla-La Mancha emphasize and, specifically, Ciudad Real, where is cultivated 27% of national area dedicated to this crop and 30% of melon national production. Melon crop is cultivating majority in Ciudad Real and it is mainly located in the Alto Guadiana, where the major aquifers of the region are located, the aquifer 23 or Mancha Occidental and the aquifer 24 or Campo de Montiel, both declared overexploited and vulnerable zones to nitrate pollution from agricultural sources. The problem is exacerbated because in this area, groundwater is the basic resource of supply to populations, and even often the only one. Given the importance of melon in the area, recent research has focused on the irrigation of melon crop. Unfortunately, scant information has been forthcoming on the effect of N fertilizer on melon piel de sapo crop, so it is very important to tackle in a serious study that lead to know the N requirements on the melon crop melon by reducing the risks of contamination by nitrate leaching without affecting productivity and crop quality. In fact, the recommended dose is often subjective and practice is a N overdose. In this situation, the taking of urgent measures to optimize the use of N fertilization is required. To do it, the effect of N in a melon crop, fertirrigated and on plastic mulch, was studied. The treatments consisted in different rates of N supply, considering N fertilizer and N content in irrigation water, so the treatment applied were: 30 (N30), 85 (N85), 112 (N112) and 139 (N139) Kg N ha-1 in 2005; 93 (N93), 243 (N243) and 393 (N393) kg ha-1 in 2006; and 11 (N11), 61 (N61), 95 (N95) and 148 (N148) kg ha-1 in 2007. A randomized complete-block design was used and each treatment was replicated four times. The results showed a significant effect of N on dry biomass and two patterns of growth were observed. On the one hand, a gradual increase in vegetative biomass of the plant, leaves and stem, with increasing N, and on the other hand, an increase of fruit biomass also with increasing N up to a maximum of biomass corresponding to the optimal dose determined in 90 kg ha-1 of N applied, corresponding to 160 kg ha-1 of N available for melon crop, since this optimum dose, the fruit biomass suffers a decline. A significant effect was observed in concentration and N uptake in leaf, steam, fruit and whole plant, increasing in all of them with increasing of N doses. Fast N uptake occurred from 30-35 to 70-80 days after transplanting, coinciding with the fruit development. The N had a clear influence on the melon yield, its components, skin thickness and flesh ratio. The melon yield increased, as the mean fruit weight and number of fruits per m2 with increasing N until achieve an above 95% of the maximum yield when the N applied is 90 kg ha-1 or 160 kg ha-1 of N available. When N exceeds the optimal amount, there is a decline in yield, reducing the mean fruit weight and number of fruits per square meter, and was also observed a decrease in fruit quality by increasing the skin thickness and decrease the flesh ratio, which means an increase in fruit hollowed with excessive N doses. There was a trend for all indexes of N use efficiency (NUE) to decline with increasing N rate. We observed two different behaviours in the calculation result of the NUE; on the one hand, all the efficiency indexes calculated with N applied and N available had an exponential trend, and on the other hand, all the efficiency indexes calculated with N uptake has a linear trend. The linear regression cuts the exponential curve, delimiting a range within which lies the optimum quantity of N. The N leaching as nitrates increased exponentially with the amount of N. The increase of N doses was affected on the N mineralization. There was a negative exponential effect of N available on the mineralization of this element that occurs in the soil during the growing season, calculated from the balances of this element. The study of N leaching for each N rate used, allowed to us to establish several environmental indices related to environmental risk that causes the use of such doses, a simple way for them to be included in the code of Best Management Practices.

Diffuse Soil Co2 Flux To Assess The Reliability Of Co2 Storage In The Mazarrón-Gañuelas Tertiary Basin (Spain)

Geological storage of CO2 is nowadays internationally considered as the most effective method for greenhouse gas emission mitigation, in order to minimize its effects on the global climatology. One of the main options is to store the CO2 in deep saline aquifers at more than 800 m depth, because it achieves its supercritical state. Among the most important aspects concerning the performance assessment of a deep CO2 geological repository is the evaluation of the CO2 leakage rate from the chosen storage geological formation. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to increase the knowledge on the interaction among CO2, storage and sealing formations, as well as on the flow paths for CO2 and the physico-mechanical resistance of the sealing formation. Furthermore, the quantification of the CO2 leakage rate is essential to evaluate its effects on the environment. One way to achieve this objective is to study of CO2 leakage on natural analogue systems, because they can provide useful information about the natural performance of the CO2, which can be applied to an artificial CO2 geological storage. This work is focused on the retention capacity of the cap-rock by measuring the diffuse soil CO2 flux in a site selected based on: i) the presence of a natural and deep CO2 accumulation; ii) its structural geological characteristics; and iii) the nature of the cap-rocks. This site is located in the so-called Mazarrón-Gañuelas Tertiary Basin, in the Guadalentin Valley, province of Murcia (Spain) Therefore the main objective of this investigation has been to detect the possible leakages of CO2 from a deep saline aquifer to the surface in order to understand the capability of this area as a natural analogue for Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS). The results obtained allow to conclude that the geological sealing formation of the basin seems to be appropriate to avoid CO2 leakages from the storage formation.

Effects on the shallow aquifers by CO2 leakages in a tertiary basin (province of Murcia, Spain)

Geological storage of CO2 is nowadays internationally considered as the most effective method for greenhouse gas emission mitigation, in order to minimize its effects on the global climatology. One of the main options is to store CO2 in deep saline aquifers at more than 800m depth, because it reaches its supercritical state. Study of the CO2 natural accumulations as natural analogues of an artificial CO2 storage is very useful in order to understand the CO2 long term behaviour and thus to predict its possible impact on the surficial environment and life. Therefore the main objective of this work is to detect the affection of the CO2 leakages from a deep saline aquifer on the shallow aquifers, all of them located in the Gañuelas-Mazarrón Tertiary basin (Province of Murcia, Spain). This CO2 storage and leakage natural system can be analogous to an artificial CO2 storage with leakage phenomena. In order to reach these objectives, groundwaters from different aquifers in the site have been sampled and analysed for major elements, free and dissolved gases and stable isotopes, particularly ∂ 13 C and 3 He/ 4 He. The results obtained allow to conclude that this natural system is an interesting example of natural analogue for an artificial CO2 storage affected by leakage processes because the shallow fresh aquifers in the site are polluted by CO2 from the deep saline aquifer as a consequence of an intensive over-exploitation of these freshwater aquifers

The Extended Water Footprint and illegal groundwater use in the Upper Guadiana Basin (Spain)

Tablas de Daimiel National Park is located in the Upper Guadiana Basin and represents one of the largest and most important wetlands in Europe. The long term ecological integrity of this wetland is inherently associated with the maintenance of a shallow groundwater table, namely the Western Mancha aquifer (WMA) or Aquifer 23. The intensive use of groundwater, mainly for irrigation, has led over the last decades to deep socio‐economic changes. Such intensive use has also lowered the water table of Aquifer 23, drastically reducing the flooded area of the wetland and threatening its ecological integrity. A number of plans and measures have been developed and implemented since the declaration of overexploitation of Aquifer 23 in the year 1987. The most recent one is the Special Plan for the Upper Guadiana (SPUG), approved in 2008. This Plan is the main measure to comply with achieving the objective of good quantitative and qualitative status required under the Water Framework Directive (2000). This paper offers a new type of integrated analysis which allows assessing under a common lens the physical, economic and social dimensions of groundwater use in the area. The first objective is to calculate the groundwater footprint of agricultural production in the Upper Guadiana basin and its evolution during 2000‐2008. For this purpose, we have applied the Extended Water Footprint (EWF) methodology ‐a novel approach based on the classical Water Footprint (WF) approach‐ that includes an assessment of the water productivity from an economic and social perspective. Compared to the classical WF, the EWF allows for a more complete overview of the sector, providing new insights for policy decisions (e.g. to define options and possibilities on water re‐allocation in order to achieve both better ecosystem conservation and social equity). The second objective is to use the EWF to compare the existing authorized and non‐authorized or illegal use of water. This allows us to discuss current initiatives by public authorities in relation to the existing frame of water rights

Balancing groundwater conservation and rural livelihoods under water and climate uncertainties: An integrated hydro-economic modeling framework

In arid countries worldwide, social conflicts between irrigation-based human development and the conservation of aquatic ecosystems are widespread and attract many public debates. This research focuses on the analysis of water and agricultural policies aimed at conserving groundwater resources and maintaining rurallivelihoods in a basin in Spain's central arid region. Intensive groundwater mining for irrigation has caused overexploitation of the basin's large aquifer, the degradation of reputed wetlands and has given rise to notable social conflicts over the years. With the aim of tackling the multifaceted socio-ecological interactions of complex water systems, the methodology used in this study consists in a novel integration into a common platform of an economic optimization model and a hydrology model WEAP (Water Evaluation And Planning system). This robust tool is used to analyze the spatial and temporal effects of different water and agricultural policies under different climate scenarios. It permits the prediction of different climate and policy outcomes across farm types (water stress impacts and adaptation), at basin's level (aquifer recovery), and along the policies’ implementation horizon (short and long run). Results show that the region's current quota-based water policies may contribute to reduce water consumption in the farms but will not be able to recover the aquifer and will inflict income losses to the rural communities. This situation would worsen in case of drought. Economies of scale and technology are evidenced as larger farms with cropping diversification and those equipped with modern irrigation will better adapt to water stress conditions. However, the long-term sustainability of the aquifer and the maintenance of rurallivelihoods will be attained only if additional policy measures are put in place such as the control of illegal abstractions and the establishing of a water bank. Within the policy domain, the research contributes to the new sustainable development strategy of the EU by concluding that, in water-scarce regions, effective integration of water and agricultural policies is essential for achieving the water protection objectives of the EU policies. Therefore, the design and enforcement of well-balanced region-specific polices is a major task faced by policy makers for achieving successful water management that will ensure nature protection and human development at tolerable social costs. From a methodological perspective, this research initiative contributes to better address hydrological questions as well as economic and social issues in complex water and human systems. Its integrated vision provides a valuable illustration to inform water policy and management decisions within contexts of water-related conflicts worldwide.

A method to assess annual average renewable groundwater reserves for large regions in Spain

This paper proposes a method for assessing the groundwater renewable reserves of large regions for an average year, based on the integration of the recession curves for their basins springs or the natural base flow of their rivers. In this method, the hydrodynamic volume (or renewable reserves), were estimated from the baseflow equation. It was assumed that the flow was the same as the natural recharge, and that the recession coefficients were derived by the hydrogeological parameters and geometrical characteristics of aquifers, and adjusted to fit the recession curves at gauging stations. The method was applied to all the aquifers of Spain, which have a total groundwater renewable reserve of 86,895 hm3 four times the mean annual recharge. However, the distribution of these reserves is very variable; 18.6% of the country aquifers contain 94.7% of the entire reserve.

Geochemical monitoring in the Hontomín (Burgos, Spain) injection site: preliminary results and perspectives

CO2 capture and storage (CCS) projects are presently developed to reduce the emission of anthropogenic CO2 into the atmosphere. CCS technologies are expected to account for the 20% of the CO2 reduction by 2050. One of the main concerns of CCS is whether CO2 may remain confined within the geological formation into which it is injected since post-injection CO2 migration in the time scale of years, decades and centuries is not well understood. Theoretically, CO2 can be retained at depth i) as a supercritical fluid (physical trapping), ii) as a fluid slowly migrating in an aquifer due to long flow path (hydrodynamic trapping), iii) dissolved into ground waters (solubility trapping) and iv) precipitated secondary carbonates. Carbon dioxide will be injected in the near future (2012) at Hontomín (Burgos, Spain) in the frame of the Compostilla EEPR project, led by the Fundación Ciudad de la Energía (CIUDEN). In order to detect leakage in the operational stage, a pre-injection geochemical baseline is presently being developed. In this work a geochemical monitoring design is presented to provide information about the feasibility of CO2 storage at depth.

Hydrogeochemistry of surface and spring waters in the surroundings of the CO2 injection site at Hontomín–Huermeces (Burgos, Spain)

In this paper the very first geochemical and isotopic data related to surface and spring waters and dissolved gases in the area of Hontomín–Huermeces (Burgos, Spain) are presented and discussed. Hontomín–Huermeces has been selected as a pilot site for the injection of pure (>99%) CO2. Injection and monitoring wells are planned to be drilled close to 6 oil wells completed in the 1980s for which detailed stratigraphical logs are available, indicating the presence of a confined saline aquifer at the depth of about 1500 m into which less than 100,000 tons of iquid CO2 will be injected, possibly starting in 2013. The chemical and features of the spring waters suggest that they are related to a shallow hydrogeological system as the concentration of the Total Dissolved Solids approaches 800 mg/L with a Ca2+(Mg2+)-HCO3− composition, similar to that of the surface waters. This is also supported by the oxygen and hydrogen isotopic ratios that have values lying between those of the Global and the Mediterranean Meteoric Water Lines. Some spring waters close to the oil wells are haracterized by relatively high concentrations of NO3− (up to 123 mg/L), unequivocally suggesting an anthropogenic source that adds to the main water–rock interaction processes. The latter can be referred to Ca-Mg-carbonate and, at a minor extent, Al-silicate dissolution, being the outcropping sedimentary rocks characterized by Palaeozoic to Quaternary rocks. Anomalous concentrations of Cl−, SO42−, As, B and Ba were measured in two springs discharging a few hundred meters from the oil wells and in the Rio Ubierna. These contents are significantly higher than those of the whole set of the studied waters and are possibly indicative of mixing processes, although at very low extent, between deep and shallow aquifers. No evidence of deep-seated gases interacting with the Hontomín–Huermeces waters was recognized in the chemistry of the disolved gases. This is likely due to the fact that they are mainly characterized by an atmospheric source as highlighted by the high contents of N2, O2 and Ar and by N2/Ar ratios that approach that of ASW (Air Saturated Water) and possibly masking any contribution related to a deep source. Nevertheless, significant concentrations (up to 63% by vol.) of isotopically negative CO2 (<−17.7‰ V-PDB) were found in some water samples, likely related to a biogenic source. The geochemical and isotopic data of this work are of particular importance when a monitoring program will be established to verify whether CO2 leakages, induced by the injection of this greenhouse gas, may be affecting the quality of the waters in the shallow hydrological circuits at Hontomín–Huermeces. In this respect, carbonate chemistry, the isotopic carbon of dissolved CO2 and TDIC (Total Dissolved Inorganic Carbon) and selected trace elements can be considered as useful parameters to trace the migration of the injected CO2 into near-surface environments.

Estudio Hidrogeológico de la Llanura Manchega mediante simulación numérica

El objetivo del presente estudio es el análisis de un sistema complejo, el Acuífero de la Mancha Occidental, mediante un modelo numérico de simulación que represente de la manera más rigurosa posible la evolución del Sistema Acuífero 23. Este modelo se realiza en régimen permanente con una rigurosa configuración del sistema desde el punto de vista geológico y geométrico. De esta forma se deja iniciado y planeado un modelo y su estructura que será una base real de futuras formulaciones transitorias, base de los sucesivos análisis de explotación y predicción. . Las distintas situaciones que en las últimas décadas ha experimentado el Sistema 23, soluciones que se han dado para las mismas, y los posibles planes de actuación que se podrían llevar a cabo en un futuro frente a condiciones cambiantes de clima y explotación se podrán estudiar a partir del presente modelo de simulación numérica. ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study is to analyses a complex system such as Western La Mancha Aquifer by the use of a numeric model that simulates as accurately as possible the evolution of Aquifer 23. This model is made in steady state with a thorough configuration of the system from both the geological and geometric point of view. Therefore, it is left initiated with a planned model and its structure which will be used as a real base for following transient flow simulations that also will be the foundation of subsequent prediction and exploitation analysis. The different situations that Aquifer 23 has experienced during the last decades; the solutions that have been given for them; and the possible plans that would be implemented in the future in order to deal with the changing environmental and exploitation conditions will be able to be studied using this model.