Estudio experimental del Sistema de Albañilería Integral en la construcción de viviendas sismorresistentes. Experimental study of the Integral Masonry System in the construction of earthquake resistant houses

This paper presents the application of the Integral Masonry System (IMS) to the construction of earthquake resistant houses and its experimental study. To verify the security of this new type of building in seismic areas of the third world two prototypes have been tested, one with adobe and the other with hollow brick. In both cases it’s a two-story 6x6x6 m3 house built to scale 1/2. The tests are carried out at the Laboratory of Antiseismic Structures of the Department of Engineering, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru in Lima, in collaboration with the UPM (Technical University of Madrid). This article shows the design process of the prototypes to test, including the sizing of the reinforcements, the characteristics of the tests and the results obtained. These results show that the IMS with adobe or brick remains stable with no significant cracks faced with a severe earthquake, with an estimated acceleration of 1.8 g. Este artículo presenta una aplicación del Sistema de Albañilería Integral (SAI) a la construcción de viviendas sismorresistentes y su estudio experimental. Para verificar su seguridad para su construcción en zonas sísmicas del tercer mundo se han ensayado dos prototipos, uno con adobe, y otro con ladrillo hueco. Se trata de una vivienda de 6x6x6 m3 y dos plantas que se construyen a escala 1/2. Los ensayos se realizaron en el Laboratorio de Estructuras Antisísmicas del Departamento de Ingeniería de la Pontificia Católica Universidad del Perú (PUCP) de Lima en colaboración con la UPM (Universidad Politécnica de Madrid). Este artículo muestra el proceso de diseño de los prototipos a ensayar, incluido el dimensionado de los refuerzos, las características de los ensayos y los resultados obtenidos. Estos resultados muestran que el SAI con adobe o ladrillo permanece estable sin grietas significativas ante un sismo severo, con una aceleración estimada de 1,8 g.

Impedance of foundations using the Boundary Integral Equation Method

Dynamic soil-structure interaction has been for a long time one of the most fascinating areas for the engineering profession. The building of large alternating machines and their effects on surrounding structures as well as on their own functional behavior, provided the initial impetus; a large amount of experimental research was done,and the results of the Russian and German groups were especially worthwhile. Analytical results by Reissner and Sehkter were reexamined by Quinlan, Sung, et. al., and finally Veletsos presented the first set of reliable results. Since then, the modeling of the homogeneous, elastic halfspace as a equivalent set of springs and dashpots has become an everyday tool in soil engineering practice, especially after the appearance of the fast Fourier transportation algorithm, which makes possible the treatment of the frequency-dependent characteristics of the equivalent elements in a unified fashion with the general method of analysis of the structure. Extensions to the viscoelastic case, as well as to embedded foundations and complicated geometries, have been presented by various authors. In general, they used the finite element method with the well known problems of geometric truncations and the subsequent use of absorbing boundaries. The properties of boundary integral equation methods are, in our opinion, specially well suited to this problem, and several of the previous results have confirmed our opinion. In what follows we present the general features related to steady-state elastodynamics and a series of results showing the splendid results that the BIEM provided. Especially interesting are the outputs obtained through the use of the so-called singular elements, whose description is incorporated at the end of the paper. The reduction in time spent by the computer and the small number of elements needed to simulate realistically the global properties of the halfspace make this procedure one of the most interesting applications of the BIEM.

The type II secretion system (Xcp) of Pseudomonas putida is active and involved in the secretion of phosphatases.

The genome of the Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas putida harbours a complete set of xcp genes for a type II protein secretion system (T2SS). This study shows that expression of these genes is induced under inorganic phosphate (Pi ) limitation and that the system enables the utilization of various organic phosphate sources. A phosphatase of the PhoX family, previously designated UxpB, was identified, which was produced under low Pi conditions and transported across the cell envelope in an Xcp-dependent manner demonstrating that the xcp genes encode an active T2SS. The signal sequence of UxpB contains a twin-arginine translocation (Tat) motif as well as a lipobox, and both processing by leader peptidase II and Tat dependency were experimentally confirmed. Two different tat gene clusters were detected in the P.?putida genome, of which one, named tat-1, is located adjacent to the uxpB and xcp genes. Both Tat systems appeared to be capable of transporting the UxpB protein. However, expression of the tat-1 genes was strongly induced by low Pi levels, indicating a function of this system in survival during Pi starvation.

The type II secretion system (Xcp) of Pseudomonas putida is active and involved in the secretion of phosphatases.

The genome of the Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas putida harbours a complete set of xcp genes for a type II protein secretion system (T2SS). This study shows that expression of these genes is induced under inorganic phosphate (Pi ) limitation and that the system enables the utilization of various organic phosphate sources. A phosphatase of the PhoX family, previously designated UxpB, was identified, which was produced under low Pi conditions and transported across the cell envelope in an Xcp-dependent manner demonstrating that the xcp genes encode an active T2SS. The signal sequence of UxpB contains a twin-arginine translocation (Tat) motif as well as a lipobox, and both processing by leader peptidase II and Tat dependency were experimentally confirmed. Two different tat gene clusters were detected in the P.?putida genome, of which one, named tat-1, is located adjacent to the uxpB and xcp genes. Both Tat systems appeared to be capable of transporting the UxpB protein. However, expression of the tat-1 genes was strongly induced by low Pi levels, indicating a function of this system in survival during Pi starvation.

Translocation and Functional Analysis of Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. savastanoi NCPPB 3335 Type III Secretion System Effectors Reveals Two Novel Effector Families of the Pseudomonas syringae Complex

Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. savastanoi NCPPB 3335 causes olive knot disease and is a model pathogen for exploring bacterial infection of woody hosts. The type III secretion system (T3SS) effector repertoire of this strain includes 31 effector candidates plus two novel candidates identified in this study which have not been reported to translocate into plant cells. In this work, we demonstrate the delivery of seven NCPPB 3335 effectors into Nicotiana tabacum leaves, including three proteins from two novel families of the P. syringae complex effector super-repertoire (HopBK and HopBL), one of which comprises two proteins (HopBL1 and HopBL2) that harbor a SUMO protease domain. When delivered by P. fluorescens heterologously expressing a P. syringae T3SS, all seven effectors were found to suppress the production of defense-associated reactive oxygen species. Moreover, six of these effectors, including the truncated versions of HopAA1 and HopAZ1 encoded by NCPPB 3335, suppressed callose deposition. The expression of HopAZ1 and HopBL1 by functionally effectorless P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000D28E inhibited the hypersensitive response in tobacco and, additionally, expression of HopBL2 by this strain significantly increased its competitiveness in N. benthamiana. DNA sequences encoding HopBL1 and HopBL2 were uniquely detected in a collection of 31 P. savastanoi pv. savastanoi strains and other P. syringae strains isolated from woody hosts, suggesting a relevant role of these two effectors in bacterial interactions with olive and other woody plants.

Transient behavior of a system composed of conductive thin wire structures excited by harmonic and lightning type signals

The transient response of a system of independent electrodes buried in a semi-infinite conducting medium is studied. Using a simple and versatile numerical scheme written by the authors and based on the Electric Field Integral Equation (EFIE), the effect caused by harmonic signals ranging on frequency from Hz to hundred of MHz, and also by lightning type driving signal striking at a remote point far from the conductors, is extensively studied. The value of the scalar potential appearing on the electrodes as a function of the frequency of the applied signal is one of the variables investigated. Other features such as the input impedance at the injection point of the signal and the Ground Potential Rise (GPR) over the electrode system are also discussed

SERBA: a B.I.E. program with linear elements for 2-D elastostatics analysis

The great developments that have occurred during the last few years in the finite element method and its applications has kept hidden other options for computation. The boundary integral element method now appears as a valid alternative and, in certain cases, has significant advantages. This method deals only with the boundary of the domain, while the F.E.M. analyses the whole domain. This has the following advantages: the dimensions of the problem to be studied are reduced by one, consequently simplifying the system of equations and preparation of input data. It is also possible to analyse infinite domains without discretization errors. These simplifications have the drawbacks of having to solve a full and non-symmetric matrix and some difficulties are incurred in the imposition of boundary conditions when complicated variations of the function over the boundary are assumed. In this paper a practical treatment of these problems, in particular boundary conditions imposition, has been carried out using the computer program shown below. Program SERBA solves general elastostatics problems in 2-dimensional continua using the boundary integral equation method. The boundary of the domain is discretized by line or elements over which the functions are assumed to vary linearly. Data (stresses and/or displacements) are introduced in the local co-ordinate system (element co-ordinates). Resulting stresses are obtained in local co-ordinates and displacements in a general system. The program has been written in Fortran ASCII and implemented on a 1108 Univac Computer. For 100 elements the core requirements are about 40 Kwords. Also available is a Fortran IV version (3 segments)implemented on a 21 MX Hewlett-Packard computer,using 15 Kwords.

The effect of boundary conditions in the numerical solution of 3-D thermoelastic problems

After the extensive research on the capabilities of the Boundary Integral Equation Method produced during the past years the versatility of its applications has been well founded. Maybe the years to come will see the in-depth analysis of several conflictive points, for example, adaptive integration, solution of the system of equations, etc. This line is clear in academic research. In this paper we comment on the incidence of the manner of imposing the boundary conditions in 3-D coupled problems. Here the effects are particularly magnified: in the first place by the simple model used (constant elements) and secondly by the process of solution, i.e. first a potential problem is solved and then the results are used as data for an elasticity problem. The errors add to both processes and small disturbances, unimportant in separated problems, can produce serious errors in the final results. The specific problem we have chosen is especially interesting. Although more general cases (i.e. transient)can be treated, here the domain integrals can be converted into boundary ones and the influence of the manner in which boundary conditions are applied will reflect the whole importance of the problem.

Dynamics of gas bubbles encapsulated by a viscoelastic fluid shell under acoustic fields

The dynamics of a gas-filled microbubble encapsulated by a viscoelastic fluid shell immersed in a Newtonian liquid and subject to an external pressure field is theoretically studied. The problem is formulated by considering a nonlinear Oldroyd type constitutive equation to model the rheological behavior of the fluid shell. Heat and mass transfer across the surface bubble have been neglected but radiation losses due to the compressibility of the surrounding liquid have been taken into account. Bubble collapse under sudden increase of the external pressure as well as nonlinear radial oscillations under ultrasound fields are investigated. The numerical results obtained show that the elasticity of the fluid coating intensifies oscillatory collapse and produces a strong increase of the amplitudes of radial oscillations which may become chaotic even for moderate driving pressure amplitudes. The role played by the elongational viscosity has also been analyzed and its influence on both, bubble collapse and radial oscillations, has been recognized. According to the theoretical predictions provided in the present work, a microbubble coated by a viscoelastic fluid shell is an oscillating system that, under acoustic driving, may experience volume oscillations of large amplitude, being, however, more stable than a free bubble. Thus, it could be expected that such a system may have a suitable behavior as an echogenic agent.

Evaluación estocástica de huecos de tensión en sistemas eléctricos: estudio de sensibilidad, estimación de índices y localización óptima de medidores

I. GENERALIDADES 1.1. Introducción Entre los diversos tipos de perturbaciones eléctricas, los huecos de tensión son considerados el problema de calidad de suministro más frecuente en los sistemas eléctricos. Este fenómeno es originado por un aumento extremo de la corriente en el sistema, causado principalmente por cortocircuitos o maniobras inadecuadas en la red. Este tipo de perturbación eléctrica está caracterizado básicamente por dos parámetros: tensión residual y duración. Típicamente, se considera que el hueco se produce cuando la tensión residual alcanza en alguna de las fases un valor entre 0.01 a 0.9 pu y tiene una duración de hasta 60 segundos. Para un usuario final, el efecto más relevante de un hueco de tensión es la interrupción o alteración de la operación de sus equipos, siendo los dispositivos de naturaleza electrónica los principalmente afectados (p. ej. ordenador, variador de velocidad, autómata programable, relé, etc.). Debido al auge tecnológico de las últimas décadas y a la búsqueda constante de automatización de los procesos productivos, el uso de componentes electrónicos resulta indispensable en la actualidad. Este hecho, lleva a que los efectos de los huecos de tensión sean más evidentes para el usuario final, provocando que su nivel de exigencia de la calidad de energía suministrada sea cada vez mayor. De forma general, el estudio de los huecos de tensión suele ser abordado bajo dos enfoques: en la carga o en la red. Desde el punto de vista de la carga, se requiere conocer las características de sensibilidad de los equipos para modelar su respuesta ante variaciones súbitas de la tensión del suministro eléctrico. Desde la perspectiva de la red, se busca estimar u obtener información adecuada que permita caracterizar su comportamiento en términos de huecos de tensión. En esta tesis, el trabajo presentado se encuadra en el segundo aspecto, es decir, en el modelado y estimación de la respuesta de un sistema eléctrico de potencia ante los huecos de tensión. 1.2. Planteamiento del problema A pesar de que los huecos de tensión son el problema de calidad de suministro más frecuente en las redes, hasta la actualidad resulta complejo poder analizar de forma adecuada este tipo de perturbación para muchas compañías del sector eléctrico. Entre las razones más comunes se tienen: - El tiempo de monitorización puede llegar a ser de varios años para conseguir una muestra de registros de huecos estadísticamente válida. - La limitación de recursos económicos para la adquisición e instalación de equipos de monitorización de huecos. - El elevado coste operativo que implica el análisis de los datos de los medidores de huecos de tensión instalados. - La restricción que tienen los datos de calidad de energía de las compañías eléctricas. Es decir, ante la carencia de datos que permitan analizar con mayor detalle los huecos de tensión, es de interés de las compañías eléctricas y la academia poder crear métodos fiables que permitan profundizar en el estudio, estimación y supervisión de este fenómeno electromagnético. Los huecos de tensión, al ser principalmente originados por eventos fortuitos como los cortocircuitos, son el resultado de diversas variables exógenas como: (i) la ubicación de la falta, (ii) la impedancia del material de contacto, (iii) el tipo de fallo, (iv) la localización del fallo en la red, (v) la duración del evento, etc. Es decir, para plantear de forma adecuada cualquier modelo teórico sobre los huecos de tensión, se requeriría representar esta incertidumbre combinada de las variables para proveer métodos realistas y, por ende, fiables para los usuarios. 1.3. Objetivo La presente tesis ha tenido como objetivo el desarrollo diversos métodos estocásticos para el estudio, estimación y supervisión de los huecos de tensión en los sistemas eléctricos de potencia. De forma específica, se ha profundizado en los siguientes ámbitos: - En el modelado realista de las variables que influyen en la caracterización de los huecos. Esto es, en esta Tesis se ha propuesto un método que permite representar de forma verosímil su cuantificación y aleatoriedad en el tiempo empleando distribuciones de probabilidad paramétricas. A partir de ello, se ha creado una herramienta informática que permite estimar la severidad de los huecos de tensión en un sistema eléctrico genérico. - Se ha analizado la influencia la influencia de las variables de entrada en la estimación de los huecos de tensión. En este caso, el estudio se ha enfocado en las variables de mayor divergencia en su caracterización de las propuestas existentes. - Se ha desarrollado un método que permite estima el número de huecos de tensión de una zona sin monitorización a través de la información de un conjunto limitado de medidas de un sistema eléctrico. Para ello, se aplican los principios de la estadística Bayesiana, estimando el número de huecos de tensión más probable de un emplazamiento basándose en los registros de huecos de otros nudos de la red. - Plantear una estrategia para optimizar la monitorización de los huecos de tensión en un sistema eléctrico. Es decir, garantizar una supervisión del sistema a través de un número de medidores menor que el número de nudos de la red. II. ESTRUCTURA DE LA TESIS Para plantear las propuestas anteriormente indicadas, la presente Tesis se ha estructurado en seis capítulos. A continuación, se describen brevemente los mismos. A manera de capítulo introductorio, en el capítulo 1, se realiza una descripción del planteamiento y estructura de la presente tesis. Esto es, se da una visión amplia de la problemática a tratar, además de describir el alcance de cada capítulo de la misma. En el capítulo 2, se presenta una breve descripción de los fundamentos y conceptos generales de los huecos de tensión. Los mismos, buscan brindar al lector de una mejor comprensión de los términos e indicadores más empleados en el análisis de severidad de los huecos de tensión en las redes eléctricas. Asimismo, a manera de antecedente, se presenta un resumen de las principales características de las técnicas o métodos existentes aplicados en la predicción y monitorización óptima de los huecos de tensión. En el capítulo 3, se busca fundamentalmente conocer la importancia de las variables que determinen la frecuencia o severidad de los huecos de tensión. Para ello, se ha implementado una herramienta de estimación de huecos de tensión que, a través de un conjunto predeterminado de experimentos mediante la técnica denominada Diseño de experimentos, analiza la importancia de la parametrización de las variables de entrada del modelo. Su análisis, es realizado mediante la técnica de análisis de la varianza (ANOVA), la cual permite establecer con rigor matemático si la caracterización de una determinada variable afecta o no la respuesta del sistema en términos de los huecos de tensión. En el capítulo 4, se propone una metodología que permite predecir la severidad de los huecos de tensión de todo el sistema a partir de los registros de huecos de un conjunto reducido de nudos de dicha red. Para ello, se emplea el teorema de probabilidad condicional de Bayes, el cual calcula las medidas más probables de todo el sistema a partir de la información proporcionada por los medidores de huecos instalados. Asimismo, en este capítulo se revela una importante propiedad de los huecos de tensión, como es la correlación del número de eventos de huecos de tensión en diversas zonas de las redes eléctricas. En el capítulo 5, se desarrollan dos métodos de localización óptima de medidores de huecos de tensión. El primero, que es una evolución metodológica del criterio de observabilidad; aportando en el realismo de la pseudo-monitorización de los huecos de tensión con la que se calcula el conjunto óptimo de medidores y, por ende, en la fiabilidad del método. Como una propuesta alternativa, se emplea la propiedad de correlación de los eventos de huecos de tensión de una red para plantear un método que permita establecer la severidad de los huecos de todo el sistema a partir de una monitorización parcial de dicha red. Finalmente, en el capítulo 6, se realiza una breve descripción de las principales aportaciones de los estudios realizados en esta tesis. Adicionalmente, se describen diversos temas a desarrollar en futuros trabajos. III. RESULTADOS En base a las pruebas realizadas en las tres redes planteadas; dos redes de prueba IEEE de 24 y 118 nudos (IEEE-24 e IEEE-118), además del sistema eléctrico de la República del Ecuador de 357 nudos (EC-357), se describen los siguientes puntos como las observaciones más relevantes: A. Estimación de huecos de tensión en ausencia de medidas: Se implementa un método estocástico de estimación de huecos de tensión denominado PEHT, el cual representa con mayor realismo la simulación de los eventos de huecos de un sistema a largo plazo. Esta primera propuesta de la tesis, es considerada como un paso clave para el desarrollo de futuros métodos del presente trabajo, ya que permite emular de forma fiable los registros de huecos de tensión a largo plazo en una red genérica. Entre las novedades más relevantes del mencionado Programa de Estimación de Huecos de Tensión (PEHT) se tienen: - Considerar el efecto combinado de cinco variables aleatorias de entrada para simular los eventos de huecos de tensión en una pseudo-monitorización a largo plazo. Las variables de entrada modeladas en la caracterización de los huecos de tensión en el PEHT son: (i) coeficiente de fallo, (ii) impedancia de fallo, (iii) tipo de fallo, (iv) localización del fallo y (v) duración. - El modelado estocástico de las variables de entrada impedancia de fallo y duración en la caracterización de los eventos de huecos de tensión. Para la parametrización de las variables mencionadas, se realizó un estudio detallado del comportamiento real de las mismas en los sistemas eléctricos. Asimismo, se define la función estadística que mejor representa la naturaleza aleatoria de cada variable. - Considerar como variables de salida del PEHT a indicadores de severidad de huecos de uso común en las normativas, como es el caso de los índices: SARFI-X, SARFI-Curve, etc. B. Análisis de sensibilidad de los huecos de tensión: Se presenta un estudio causa-efecto (análisis de sensibilidad) de las variables de entrada de mayor divergencia en su parametrización entre las referencias relacionadas a la estimación de los huecos de tensión en redes eléctricas. De forma específica, se profundiza en el estudio de la influencia de la parametrización de las variables coeficiente de fallo e impedancia de fallo en la predicción de los huecos de tensión. A continuación un resumen de las conclusiones más destacables: - La precisión de la variable de entrada coeficiente de fallo se muestra como un parámetro no influyente en la estimación del número de huecos de tensión (SARFI-90 y SARFI-70) a largo plazo. Es decir, no se requiere de una alta precisión del dato tasa de fallo de los elementos del sistema para obtener una adecuada estimación de los huecos de tensión. - La parametrización de la variable impedancia de fallo se muestra como un factor muy sensible en la estimación de la severidad de los huecos de tensión. Por ejemplo, al aumentar el valor medio de esta variable aleatoria, se disminuye considerablemente la severidad reportada de los huecos en la red. Por otra parte, al evaluar el parámetro desviación típica de la impedancia de fallo, se observa una relación directamente proporcional de este parámetro con la severidad de los huecos de tensión de la red. Esto es, al aumentar la desviación típica de la impedancia de fallo, se evidencia un aumento de la media y de la variación interanual de los eventos SARFI-90 y SARFI-70. - En base al análisis de sensibilidad desarrollado en la variable impedancia de fallo, se considera muy cuestionable la fiabilidad de los métodos de estimación de huecos de tensión que omiten su efecto en el modelo planteado. C. Estimación de huecos de tensión en base a la información de una monitorización parcial de la red: Se desarrolla un método que emplea los registros de una red parcialmente monitorizada para determinar la severidad de los huecos de todo el sistema eléctrico. A partir de los casos de estudio realizados, se observa que el método implementado (PEHT+MP) posee las siguientes características: - La metodología propuesta en el PEHT+MP combina la teoría clásica de cortocircuitos con diversas técnicas estadísticas para estimar, a partir de los datos de los medidores de huecos instalados, las medidas de huecos de los nudos sin monitorización de una red genérica. - El proceso de estimación de los huecos de tensión de la zona no monitorizada de la red se fundamenta en la aplicación del teorema de probabilidad condicional de Bayes. Es decir, en base a los datos observados (los registros de los nudos monitorizados), el PEHT+MP calcula de forma probabilística la severidad de los huecos de los nudos sin monitorización del sistema. Entre las partes claves del procedimiento propuesto se tienen los siguientes puntos: (i) la creación de una base de datos realista de huecos de tensión a través del Programa de Estimación de Huecos de Tensión (PEHT) propuesto en el capítulo anterior; y, (ii) el criterio de máxima verosimilitud empleado para estimar las medidas de huecos de los nudos sin monitorización de la red evaluada. - Las predicciones de medidas de huecos de tensión del PEHT+MP se ven potenciadas por la propiedad de correlación de los huecos de tensión en diversas zonas de un sistema eléctrico. Esta característica intrínseca de las redes eléctricas limita de forma significativa la respuesta de las zonas fuertemente correlacionadas del sistema ante un eventual hueco de tensión. Como el PEHT+MP está basado en principios probabilísticos, la reducción del rango de las posibles medidas de huecos se ve reflejado en una mejor predicción de las medidas de huecos de la zona no monitorizada. - Con los datos de un conjunto de medidores relativamente pequeño del sistema, es posible obtener estimaciones precisas (error nulo) de la severidad de los huecos de la zona sin monitorizar en las tres redes estudiadas. - El PEHT+MP se puede aplicar a diversos tipos de indicadores de severidad de los huecos de tensión, como es el caso de los índices: SARFI-X, SARFI-Curve, SEI, etc. D. Localización óptima de medidores de huecos de tensión: Se plantean dos métodos para ubicar de forma estratégica al sistema de monitorización de huecos en una red genérica. La primera propuesta, que es una evolución metodológica de la localización óptima de medidores de huecos basada en el criterio de observabilidad (LOM+OBS); y, como segunda propuesta, un método que determina la localización de los medidores de huecos según el criterio del área de correlación (LOM+COR). Cada método de localización óptima de medidores propuesto tiene un objetivo concreto. En el caso del LOM+OBS, la finalidad del método es determinar el conjunto óptimo de medidores que permita registrar todos los fallos que originen huecos de tensión en la red. Por otro lado, en el método LOM+COR se persigue definir un sistema óptimo de medidores que, mediante la aplicación del PEHT+MP (implementado en el capítulo anterior), sea posible estimar de forma precisa las medidas de huecos de tensión de todo el sistema evaluado. A partir del desarrollo de los casos de estudio de los citados métodos de localización óptima de medidores en las tres redes planteadas, se describen a continuación las observaciones más relevantes: - Como la generación de pseudo-medidas de huecos de tensión de los métodos de localización óptima de medidores (LOM+OBS y LOM+COR) se obtienen mediante la aplicación del algoritmo PEHT, la formulación del criterio de optimización se realiza en base a una pseudo-monitorización realista, la cual considera la naturaleza aleatoria de los huecos de tensión a través de las cinco variables estocásticas modeladas en el PEHT. Esta característica de la base de datos de pseudo-medidas de huecos de los métodos LOM+OBS y LOM+COR brinda una mayor fiabilidad del conjunto óptimo de medidores calculado respecto a otros métodos similares en la bibliografía. - El conjunto óptimo de medidores se determina según la necesidad del operador de la red. Esto es, si el objetivo es registrar todos los fallos que originen huecos de tensión en el sistema, se emplea el criterio de observabilidad en la localización óptima de medidores de huecos. Por otra parte, si se plantea definir un sistema de monitorización que permita establecer la severidad de los huecos de tensión de todo el sistema en base a los datos de un conjunto reducido de medidores de huecos, el criterio de correlación resultaría el adecuado. De forma específica, en el caso del método LOM+OBS, basado en el criterio de observabilidad, se evidenciaron las siguientes propiedades en los casos de estudio realizados: - Al aumentar el tamaño de la red, se observa la tendencia de disminuir el porcentaje de nudos monitorizados de dicho sistema. Por ejemplo, para monitorizar los fallos que originan huecos en la red IEEE-24, se requiere monitorizar el 100\% de los nudos del sistema. En el caso de las redes IEEE-118 y EC-357, el método LOM+OBS determina que con la monitorización de un 89.5% y 65.3% del sistema, respectivamente, se cumpliría con el criterio de observabilidad del método. - El método LOM+OBS permite calcular la probabilidad de utilización del conjunto óptimo de medidores a largo plazo, estableciendo así un criterio de la relevancia que tiene cada medidor considerado como óptimo en la red. Con ello, se puede determinar el nivel de precisión u observabilidad (100%, 95%, etc.) con el cual se detectarían los fallos que generan huecos en la red estudiada. Esto es, al aumentar el nivel de precisión de detección de los fallos que originan huecos, se espera que aumente el número de medidores requeridos en el conjunto óptimo de medidores calculado. - El método LOM+OBS se evidencia como una técnica aplicable a todo tipo de sistema eléctrico (radial o mallado), el cual garantiza la detección de los fallos que originan huecos de tensión en un sistema según el nivel de observabilidad planteado. En el caso del método de localización óptima de medidores basado en el criterio del área de correlación (LOM+COR), las diversas pruebas realizadas evidenciaron las siguientes conclusiones: - El procedimiento del método LOM+COR combina los métodos de estimación de huecos de tensión de capítulos anteriores (PEHT y PEHT+MP) con técnicas de optimización lineal para definir la localización óptima de los medidores de huecos de tensión de una red. Esto es, se emplea el PEHT para generar los pseudo-registros de huecos de tensión, y, en base al criterio planteado de optimización (área de correlación), el LOM+COR formula y calcula analíticamente el conjunto óptimo de medidores de la red a largo plazo. A partir de la información registrada por este conjunto óptimo de medidores de huecos, se garantizaría una predicción precisa de la severidad de los huecos de tensión de todos los nudos del sistema con el PEHT+MP. - El método LOM+COR requiere un porcentaje relativamente reducido de nudos del sistema para cumplir con las condiciones de optimización establecidas en el criterio del área de correlación. Por ejemplo, en el caso del número total de huecos (SARFI-90) de las redes IEEE-24, IEEE-118 y EC-357, se calculó un conjunto óptimo de 9, 12 y 17 medidores de huecos, respectivamente. Es decir, solamente se requeriría monitorizar el 38\%, 10\% y 5\% de los sistemas indicados para supervisar los eventos SARFI-90 en toda la red. - El método LOM+COR se muestra como un procedimiento de optimización versátil, el cual permite reducir la dimensión del sistema de monitorización de huecos de redes eléctricas tanto radiales como malladas. Por sus características, este método de localización óptima permite emular una monitorización integral del sistema a través de los registros de un conjunto pequeño de monitores. Por ello, este nuevo método de optimización de medidores sería aplicable a operadores de redes que busquen disminuir los costes de instalación y operación del sistema de monitorización de los huecos de tensión. ABSTRACT I. GENERALITIES 1.1. Introduction Among the various types of electrical disturbances, voltage sags are considered the most common quality problem in power systems. This phenomenon is caused by an extreme increase of the current in the network, primarily caused by short-circuits or inadequate maneuvers in the system. This type of electrical disturbance is basically characterized by two parameters: residual voltage and duration. Typically, voltage sags occur when the residual voltage, in some phases, reaches a value between 0.01 to 0.9 pu and lasts up to 60 seconds. To an end user, the most important effect of a voltage sags is the interruption or alteration of their equipment operation, with electronic devices the most affected (e.g. computer, drive controller, PLC, relay, etc.). Due to the technology boom of recent decades and the constant search for automating production processes, the use of electronic components is essential today. This fact makes the effects of voltage sags more noticeable to the end user, causing the level of demand for a quality energy supply to be increased. In general, the study of voltage sags is usually approached from one of two aspects: the load or the network. From the point of view of the load, it is necessary to know the sensitivity characteristics of the equipment to model their response to sudden changes in power supply voltage. From the perspective of the network, the goal is to estimate or obtain adequate information to characterize the network behavior in terms of voltage sags. In this thesis, the work presented fits into the second aspect; that is, in the modeling and estimation of the response of a power system to voltage sag events. 1.2. Problem Statement Although voltage sags are the most frequent quality supply problem in electrical networks, thistype of disturbance remains complex and challenging to analyze properly. Among the most common reasons for this difficulty are: - The sag monitoring time, because it can take up to several years to get a statistically valid sample. - The limitation of funds for the acquisition and installation of sag monitoring equipment. - The high operating costs involved in the analysis of the voltage sag data from the installed monitors. - The restrictions that electrical companies have with the registered power quality data. That is, given the lack of data to further voltage sag analysis, it is of interest to electrical utilities and researchers to create reliable methods to deepen the study, estimation and monitoring of this electromagnetic phenomenon. Voltage sags, being mainly caused by random events such as short-circuits, are the result of various exogenous variables such as: (i) the number of faults of a system element, (ii) the impedance of the contact material, (iii) the fault type, (iv) the fault location, (v) the duration of the event, etc. That is, to properly raise any theoretical model of voltage sags, it is necessary to represent the combined uncertainty of variables to provide realistic methods that are reliable for users. 1.3. Objective This Thesis has been aimed at developing various stochastic methods for the study, estimation and monitoring of voltage sags in electrical power systems. Specifically, it has deepened the research in the following areas: - This research furthers knowledge in the realistic modeling of the variables that influence sag characterization. This thesis proposes a method to credibly represent the quantification and randomness of the sags in time by using parametric probability distributions. From this, a software tool was created to estimate the severity of voltage sags in a generic power system. - This research also analyzes the influence of the input variables in the estimation of voltage sags. In this case, the study has focused on the variables of greatest divergence in their characterization of the existing proposals. - A method was developed to estimate the number of voltage sags of an area without monitoring through the information of a limited set of sag monitors in an electrical system. To this end, the principles of Bayesian statistics are applied, estimating the number of sags most likely to happen in a system busbar based in records of other sag network busbars. - A strategy was developed to optimize the monitorization of voltage sags on a power system. Its purpose is to ensure the monitoring of the system through a number of monitors lower than the number of busbars of the network assessed. II. THESIS STRUCTURE To describe in detail the aforementioned proposals, this Thesis has been structured into six chapters. Below is are brief descriptions of them: As an introductory chapter, Chapter 1, provides a description of the approach and structure of this thesis. It presents a wide view of the problem to be treated, in addition to the description of the scope of each chapter. In Chapter 2, a brief description of the fundamental and general concepts of voltage sags is presented to provide to the reader a better understanding of the terms and indicators used in the severity analysis of voltage sags in power networks. Also, by way of background, a summary of the main features of existing techniques or methods used in the prediction and optimal monitoring of voltage sags is also presented. Chapter 3 essentially seeks to know the importance of the variables that determine the frequency or severity of voltage sags. To do this, a tool to estimate voltage sags is implemented that, through a predetermined set of experiments using the technique called Design of Experiments, discusses the importance of the parameters of the input variables of the model. Its analysis is interpreted by using the technique of analysis of variance (ANOVA), which provides mathematical rigor to establish whether the characterization of a particular variable affects the system response in terms of voltage sags or not. In Chapter 4, a methodology to predict the severity of voltage sags of an entire system through the sag logs of a reduced set of monitored busbars is proposed. For this, the Bayes conditional probability theorem is used, which calculates the most likely sag severity of the entire system from the information provided by the installed monitors. Also, in this chapter an important property of voltage sags is revealed, as is the correlation of the voltage sags events in several zones of a power system. In Chapter 5, two methods of optimal location of voltage sag monitors are developed. The first one is a methodological development of the observability criteria; it contributes to the realism of the sag pseudo-monitoring with which the optimal set of sag monitors is calculated and, therefore, to the reliability of the proposed method. As an alternative proposal, the correlation property of the sag events of a network is used to raise a method that establishes the sag severity of the entire system from a partial monitoring of the network. Finally, in Chapter 6, a brief description of the main contributions of the studies in this Thesis is detailed. Additionally, various themes to be developed in future works are described. III. RESULTS. Based on tests on the three networks presented, two IEEE test networks of 24 and 118 busbars (IEEE-24 and IEEE-118) and the electrical system of the Republic of Ecuador (EC-357), the following points present the most important observations: A. Estimation of voltage sags in the absence of measures: A stochastic estimation method of voltage sags, called PEHT, is implemented to represent with greater realism the long-term simulation of voltage sags events in a system. This first proposal of this thesis is considered a key step for the development of future methods of this work, as it emulates in a reliable manner the voltage sag long-term records in a generic network. Among the main innovations of this voltage sag estimation method are the following: - Consideration of the combined effect of five random input variables to simulate the events of voltage sags in long-term monitoring is included. The input variables modeled in the characterization of voltage sags on the PEHT are as follows: (i) fault coefficient, (ii) fault impedance, (iii) type of fault, (iv) location of the fault, and (v) fault duration. - Also included is the stochastic modeling of the input variables of fault impedance and duration in the characterization of the events of voltage sags. For the parameterization of these variables, a detailed study of the real behavior in power systems is developed. Also, the statistical function best suited to the random nature of each variable is defined. - Consideration of sag severity indicators used in standards as PEHT output variables, including such as indices as SARFI-X, SARFI-Curve, etc. B. Sensitivity analysis of voltage sags: A cause-effect study (sensitivity analysis) of the input variables of greatest divergence between reference parameterization related to the estimation of voltage sags in electrical networks is presented. Specifically, it delves into the study of the influence of the parameterization of the variables fault coefficient and fault impedance in the voltage sag estimation. Below is a summary of the most notable observations: - The accuracy of the input variable fault coefficient is shown as a non-influential parameter in the long-term estimation of the number of voltage sags (SARFI-90 and SARFI-70). That is, it does not require a high accuracy of the fault rate data of system elements for a proper voltage sag estimation. - The parameterization of the variable fault impedance is shown to be a very sensitive factor in the estimation of the voltage sag severity. For example, by increasing the average value of this random variable, the reported sag severity in the network significantly decreases. Moreover, in assessing the standard deviation of the fault impedance parameter, a direct relationship of this parameter with the voltage sag severity of the network is observed. That is, by increasing the fault impedance standard deviation, an increase of the average and the interannual variation of the SARFI-90 and SARFI-70 events is evidenced. - Based on the sensitivity analysis developed in the variable fault impedance, the omission of this variable in the voltage sag estimation would significantly call into question the reliability of the responses obtained. C. Voltage sag estimation from the information of a network partially monitored: A method that uses the voltage sag records of a partially monitored network for the sag estimation of all the power system is developed. From the case studies performed, it is observed that the method implemented (PEHT+MP) has the following characteristics: - The methodology proposed in the PEHT+MP combines the classical short-circuit theory with several statistical techniques to estimate, from data the of the installed sag meters, the sag measurements of unmonitored busbars of a generic power network. - The estimation process of voltage sags of the unmonitored zone of the network is based on the application of the conditional probability theorem of Bayes. That is, based on the observed data (monitored busbars records), the PEHT+MP calculates probabilistically the sag severity at unmonitored system busbars. Among the key parts of the proposed procedure are the following: (i) the creation of a realistic data base of voltage sags through of the sag estimation program (PEHT); and, (ii) the maximum likelihood criterion used to estimate the sag indices of system busbars without monitoring. - The voltage sag measurement estimations of PEHT+MP are potentiated by the correlation property of the sag events in power systems. This inherent characteristic of networks significantly limits the response of strongly correlated system zones to a possible voltage sag. As the PEHT+MP is based on probabilistic principles, a reduction of the range of possible sag measurements is reflected in a better sag estimation of the unmonitored area of the power system. - From the data of a set of monitors representing a relatively small portion of the system, to obtain accurate estimations (null error) of the sag severity zones without monitoring is feasible in the three networks studied. - The PEHT+MP can be applied to several types of sag indices, such as: SARFI-X, SARFI-Curve, SEI, etc. D. Optimal location of voltage sag monitors in power systems: Two methods for strategically locating the sag monitoring system are implemented for a generic network. The first proposal is a methodological development of the optimal location of sag monitors based on the observability criterion (LOM + OBS); the second proposal is a method that determines the sag monitor location according to the correlation area criterion (LOM+COR). Each proposed method of optimal location of sag monitors has a specific goal. In the case of LOM+OBS, the purpose of the method is to determine the optimal set of sag monitors to record all faults that originate voltage sags in the network. On the other hand, the LOM+COR method attempts to define the optimal location of sag monitors to estimate the sag indices in all the assessed network with the PEHT+MP application. From the development of the case studies of these methods of optimal location of sag monitors in the three networks raised, the most relevant observations are described below: - As the generation of voltage sag pseudo-measurements of the optimal location methods (LOM+OBS and LOM+COR) are obtained by applying the algorithm PEHT, the formulation of the optimization criterion is performed based on a realistic sag pseudo-monitoring, which considers the random nature of voltage sags through the five stochastic variables modeled in PEHT. This feature of the database of sag pseudo-measurements of the LOM+OBS and LOM+COR methods provides a greater reliability of the optimal set of monitors calculated when compared to similar methods in the bibliography. - The optimal set of sag monitors is determined by the network operator need. That is, if the goal is to record all faults that originate from voltage sags in the system, the observability criterion is used to determine the optimal location of sag monitors (LOM+OBS). Moreover, if the objective is to define a monitoring system that allows establishing the sag severity of the system from taken from information based on a limited set of sag monitors, the correlation area criterion would be appropriate (LOM+COR). Specifically, in the case of the LOM+OBS method (based on the observability criterion), the following properties were observed in the case studies: - By increasing the size of the network, there was observed a reduction in the percentage of monitored system busbars required. For example, to monitor all the faults which cause sags in the IEEE-24 network, then 100% of the system busbars are required for monitoring. In the case of the IEEE-118 and EC-357 networks, the method LOM+OBS determines that with monitoring 89.5 % and 65.3 % of the system, respectively, the observability criterion of the method would be fulfilled. - The LOM+OBS method calculates the probability of using the optimal set of sag monitors in the long term, establishing a relevance criterion of each sag monitor considered as optimal in the network. With this, the level of accuracy or observability (100%, 95%, etc.) can be determined, with which the faults that caused sags in the studied network are detected. That is, when the accuracy level for detecting faults that cause sags in the system is increased, a larger number of sag monitors is expected when calculating the optimal set of monitors. - The LOM + OBS method is demonstrated to be a technique applicable to any type of electrical system (radial or mesh), ensuring the detection of faults that cause voltage sags in a system according to the observability level raised. In the case of the optimal localization of sag monitors based on the criterion of correlation area (LOM+COR), several tests showed the following conclusions: - The procedure of LOM+COR method combines the implemented algorithms of voltage sag estimation (PEHT and PEHT+MP) with linear optimization techniques to define the optimal location of the sag monitors in a network. That is, the PEHT is used to generate the voltage sag pseudo-records, and, from the proposed optimization criterion (correlation area), the LOM+COR formulates and analytically calculates the optimal set of sag monitors of the network in the long term. From the information recorded by the optimal set of sag monitors, an accurate prediction of the voltage sag severity at all the busbars of the system is guaranteed with the PEHT+MP. - The LOM + COR method is shown to be a versatile optimization procedure, which reduces the size of the sag monitoring system both at radial as meshed grids. Due to its characteristics, this optimal location method allows emulation of complete system sag monitoring through the records of a small optimal set of sag monitors. Therefore, this new optimization method would be applicable to network operators that looks to reduce the installation and operation costs of the voltage sag monitoring system.

Evaluation of the influence of toll systems on energy consumption and CO2 emissions: A case study of a Spanish highway

This paper studies the energy consumption and subsequent CO2 emissions of road highway transportation under three toll systems in Spain for four categories of vehicles: cars, vans, buses and articulated trucks. The influence of toll systems is tested for a section of AP-41 highway between Toledo and Madrid. One system is free flow, other is traditional stop and go and the last toll system operates with an electronic toll collection (ETC) technology. Energy consumption and CO2 emissions were found to be closely related to vehicle mass, wind exposure, engine efficiency and acceleration rate. These parameters affect, directly or indirectly, the external forces which determine the energy consumption. Reducing the magnitude of these forces through an appropriate toll management is an important way of improving the energy performance of vehicles. The type of toll system used can have a major influence on the energy efficiency of highway transportation and therefore it is necessary to consider free flow.

A new boundary condition solved with B.I.E.M.

Among the classical operators of mathematical physics the Laplacian plays an important role due to the number of different situations that can be modelled by it. Because of this a great effort has been made by mathematicians as well as by engineers to master its properties till the point that nearly everything has been said about them from a qualitative viewpoint. Quantitative results have also been obtained through the use of the new numerical techniques sustained by the computer. Finite element methods and boundary techniques have been successfully applied to engineering problems as can be seen in the technical literature (for instance [ l ] , [2], [3] . Boundary techniques are especially advantageous in those cases in which the main interest is concentrated on what is happening at the boundary. This situation is very usual in potential problems due to the properties of harmonic functions. In this paper we intend to show how a boundary condition different from the classical, but physically sound, is introduced without any violence in the discretization frame of the Boundary Integral Equation Method. The idea will be developed in the context of heat conduction in axisymmetric problems but it is hoped that its extension to other situations is straightforward. After the presentation of the method several examples will show the capabilities of modelling a physical problem.

Desarrollo de un modelo para la caracterización termoeconómica de ciclos combinados de turbinas de gas y de vapor en condiciones de carga variable

En la actualidad, el interés por las plantas de potencia de ciclo combinado de gas y vapor ha experimentado un notable aumento debido a su alto rendimiento, bajo coste de generación y rápida construcción. El objetivo fundamental de la tesis es profundizar en el conocimiento de esta tecnología, insuficientemente conocida hasta el momento debido al gran número de grados de libertad que existen en el diseño de este tipo de instalaciones. El estudio se realizó en varias fases. La primera consistió en analizar y estudiar las distintas tecnologías que se pueden emplear en este tipo de centrales, algunas muy recientes o en fase de investigación, como las turbinas de gas de geometría variable, las turbinas de gas refrigeradas con agua o vapor del ciclo de vapor o las calderas de paso único que trabajan con agua en condiciones supercríticas. Posteriormente se elaboraron los modelos matemáticos que permiten la simulación termodinámica de cada uno de los componentes que integran las plantas, tanto en el punto de diseño como a cargas parciales. Al mismo tiempo, se desarrolló una metodología novedosa que permite resolver el sistema de ecuaciones que resulta de la simulación de cualquier configuración posible de ciclo combinado. De esa forma se puede conocer el comportamiento de cualquier planta en cualquier punto de funcionamiento. Por último se desarrolló un modelo de atribución de costes para este tipo de centrales. Con dicho modelo, los estudios se pueden realizar no sólo desde un punto de vista termodinámico sino también termoeconómico, con lo que se pueden encontrar soluciones de compromiso entre rendimiento y coste, asignar costes de producción, determinar curvas de oferta, beneficios económicos de la planta y delimitar el rango de potencias donde la planta es rentable. El programa informático, desarrollado en paralelo con los modelos de simulación, se ha empleado para obtener resultados de forma intensiva. El estudio de los resultados permite profundizar ampliamente en el conocimiento de la tecnología y, así, desarrollar una metodología de diseño de este tipo de plantas bajo un criterio termoeconómico. ABSTRACT The growing energy demand and the need of shrinking costs have led to the design of high efficiency and quick installation power plants. The success of combined cycle gas turbine power plants lies on their high efficiency, low cost and short construction lead time. The main objective of the work is to study in detail this technology, which is not thoroughly known owing to the great number of degrees of freedom that exist in the design of this kind of power plants. The study is divided into three parts. Firstly, the different technologies and components that could be used in any configuration of a combined cycle gas turbine power plant are studied. Some of them could be of recent technology, such as the variable inlet guide vane compressors, the H-technology for gas turbine cooling or the once-through heat recovery steam generators, used with water at supercritical conditions. Secondly, a mathematical model has been developed to simulate at full and part load the components of the power plant. At the same time, a new methodology is proposed in order to solve the equation system resulting for any possible power plant configuration. Therefore, any combined cycle gas turbine could be simulated at any part load condition. Finally a themoeconomic model is proposed. This model allows studying the power plant not only from a thermodynamic point of view but also from a thermoeconomic one. Likewise, it allows determining the generating costs or the cash flow, thus achieving a trade off between efficiency and cost. Likewise, the model calculates the part load range where the power plant is profitable. Once the thermodynamic and thermoeconomic models are developed, they are intensively used in order to gain knowledge in the combined cycle gas turbine technology and, in this way, to propose a methodology aimed at the design of this kind of power plants from a thermoeconomic point of view.

A bacterial cysteine protease effector protein interferes with photosynthesis to suppress plant innate immune responses

The bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000 suppresses plant innate immunity with effector proteins injected by a type III secretion system (T3SS). The cysteine protease effector HopN1, which reduces the ability of DC3000 to elicit programmed cell death in non-host tobacco, was found to also suppress the production of defence-associated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and callose when delivered by Pseudomonas fluorescens heterologously expressing a P. syringae T3SS. Purified His 6 -tagged HopN1 was used to identify tomato PsbQ, a member of the oxygen evolving complex of photosystem II (PSII), as an interacting protein. HopN1 localized to chloroplasts and both degraded PsbQ and inhibited PSII activity in chloroplast preparations, whereas a HopN1 D299A non-catalytic mutant lost these abilities. Gene silencing of NtPsbQ in tobacco compromised ROS production and programmed cell death.

Investigation of the Epitaxial Graphene/p-SiC Heterojunction

There has been significant research in the study of in-plane charge-carrier transport in graphene in order to understand and exploit its unique electrical properties; however, the vertical graphene–semiconductor system also presents opportunities for unique devices. In this letter, we investigate the epitaxial graphene/p-type 4H-SiC system to better understand this vertical heterojunction. The I–V behavior does not demonstrate thermionic emission properties that are indicative of a Schottky barrier but rather demonstrates characteristics of a semiconductor heterojunction. This is confirmed by the fitting of the temperature-dependent I–V curves to classical heterojunction equations and the observation of band-edge electroluminescence in SiC.