GIS analysis of the accuracy of Tomas Lopez's historical cartography in the Canary Islands (1742 - 1746)

The accuracy of Tomás López´s historical cartography of the Canary Islands included in the “Atlas Particular” of the Kingdoms of Spain, Portugal and Adjacent Islands” is analyzed. For this purpose, we propose a methodology based on Geographic Information Systems (GIS), a comparison of digitized historical cartography population centres with current ones. This study shows that the lineal error value is small for the smaller islands: Lanzarote, El Hierro, La Palma and La Gomera. In the large islands of Tenerife, Fuerteventura and Gran Canaria, the error is smaller in central zones but increases towards the coast. This indicates that Tomás López began his cartography starting from central island zones, accumulating errors due to lack of geodetic references as he moved toward the coast.

Validation of microsatellite markers for cytotype discrimination in the model grass Brachypodium distachyon

Brachypodium distachyon (2n = 2x = 10) is a small annual grass species where the existence of three different cytotypes (10, 20 and 30 chromosomes) has long been regarded as a case of autopolyploid series, with x = 5. However, it has been demonstrated that the cytotypes assumed to be polyploids represent two separate Brachypodium species recently named as B. stacei (2n = 2x = 20) and B. hybridum (2n = 4x = 30). The aim of this study was to find a PCR-based alternative approach that could replace standard cytotyping methods (i. e., chromosome counting and flow cytometry) to characterize each of the three Brachypodium species. We have analyzed with four microsatellite (SSR) markers eighty-three Brachypodium distachyon-type lines from varied locations in Spain, including the Balearic and Canary Islands. Within this set of lines, 64, 4 and 15 had 10, 20 and 30 chromosomes, respectively. The surveyed markers produced cytotype-specific SSR profiles. So, a single amplification product was generated in the diploid samples, with non-overlapping allelic ranges between the 2n = 10 and 2n = 20 cytotypes, whereas two bands, one in the size range of each of the diploid cytotypes, were amplified in the 2n = 30 lines. Furthermore, the remarkable size difference obtained with the SSR ALB165 allowed the identification of the Brachypodium species by simple agarose gel electrophoresis.

Conservation of endangered Lupinus mariae-josephae in its natural habitat by inoculation with selected, native Bradyrhizobium strains

Lupinus mariae-josephae is a recently discovered endemism that is only found in alkaline-limed soils, a unique habitat for lupines, from a small area in Valencia region (Spain). In these soils, L. mariae-josephae grows in just a few defined patches, and previous conservation efforts directed towards controlled plant reproduction have been unsuccessful. We have previously shown that L. mariae-josephae plants establish a specific root nodule symbiosis with bradyrhizobia present in those soils, and we reasoned that the paucity of these bacteria in soils might contribute to the lack of success in reproducing plants for conservation purposes. Greenhouse experiments using L. mariae-josephae trap-plants showed the absence or near absence of L. mariae-josephae-nodulating bacteria in ‘‘terra rossa’’ soils of Valencia outside of L. mariaejosephae plant patches, and in other ‘‘terra rossa’’ or alkaline red soils of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands outside of the Valencia L. mariae-josephae endemism region. Among the bradyrhizobia able to establish an efficient symbiosis with L. mariae-josephae plants, two strains, LmjC and LmjM3 were selected as inoculum for seed coating. Two planting experiments were carried out in consecutive years under natural conditions in areas with edapho-climatic characteristics identical to those sustaining natural L. mariae-josephae populations, and successful reproduction of the plant was achieved. Interestingly, the successful reproductive cycle was absolutely dependent on seedling inoculation with effective bradyrhizobia, and optimal performance was observed in plants inoculated with LmjC, a strain that had previously shown the most efficient behavior under controlled conditions. Our results define conditions for L. mariae-josephae conservation and for extension to alkaline-limed soil habitats, where no other known lupine can thrive.

Native bradyrhizobial symbionts of Lupinus mariae-josephae, a unique endemism thriving in alkaline soils in Eastern Spain

Lupinus mariae-josephae (Lmj) es una especie de lupino endémica de una pequeña y específica área de Comunidad Valenciana (Este de España), donde prospera en suelos alcalinoscalcáreos, un hábitat singular para los altramuces, que crecen preferentemente en suelos ácidos o neutros. Esto hace de Lmj una especie de lupino única. Cuando se inició este trabajo, la extensión conocida de este endemismo abarcaba unos 700 kilómetros cuadrados, confinados en la provincia de Valencia. En esta área, Lmj prospera en pequeñas poblaciones aisladas que contienen un número reducido de plantas por lo que se la consideró una especie en peligro de extinción. Todos los esfuerzos, utilizando estrategias clásicas dirigidas a ampliar el área de crecimiento de Lmj y garantizar su conservación, han tenido un éxito limitado. El trabajo que se presenta está dirigido a mejorar el conocimiento de la ecología de Lmj, en particular la interacción simbiótica que establece con bacterias del suelo denominadas rizobios y se centra en la caracterización fenotípica, filogenética y genómica de esos rizobios. También se investiga la posible contribución de la simbiosis en mejorar la conservación de Lmj. Para este fin, se han estudiado diferentes aspectos que se describen a continuación. El primero objetivo se centró en aislar y estudiar de la diversidad genética de las bacterias endosimbióticas de Lmj. . Se realizó un análisis filogenético de genes esenciales que mostró que las cepas de Lmj pertenecen al género Bradyrhizobium y que presentan una gran diversidad con características fenotípicas y simbióticas diferentes de cepas de Bradyrhizobium que nodulan otras especies de lupinos nativos de España (cepas ISLU). Las cepas estudiadas se dividieron en dos grupos (Clado I y Clado II). El Clado I, incluye a las cepas Lmj, definiendo un nuevo linaje, filogenéticamente relacionado con otras especies de Bradyrhizobium, como B. jicamae y B. elkanii. El Clado II contiene cepas ISLU relacionadas con cepas de B. canariense y B. japonicum que establecen simbiosis con lupinos de suelos ácidos. Otro análisis filogenético basado en genes simbióticos, distribuyó las cepas de Lmj en sólo dos grupos diferentes. La singularidad y gran diversidad de estas cepas en una pequeña área geográfica, hacen de este, un atractivo sistema para el estudio de la evolución y adaptación de las bacterias simbióticas a su respectiva planta huésped. Adicionalmente, se estudio la presencia de bacterias capaces de nodular Lmj en suelos básicos de Chiapas, México. Sorprendentemente, estos suelos contienen bacterias capaces establecer interacciones simbióticas eficientes con Lmj en ensayos de invernadero. A continuación se investigó la taxonomía de los endosimbiontes de Lmj analizando la secuencia de cuatro genes esenciales (16S rRNA, recA, glnII y atpD) y el promedio de identidad de nucleótidos de genomas completos de algunas cepas representativas de la diversidad (ANIm). Se identificaron nuevas especies de Bradyrhizobium dentro del Clado I y se definió una de ellas: 'Bradyrhizobium valentinum' sp. nov (cepa tipo LmjM3T = CECT 8364T, LMG 2761T). También se abordó cómo conservar Lmj en su hábitat natural mediante inoculación con alguna de las cepas aisladas. Se demostró la ausencia de bacterias capaces de nodular Lmj en suelos rojos alcalinos o ‘‘terra rossa’’ de la Península Ibérica y Baleares. Dos cepas, altamente eficientes en cuanto a la fijación de nitrógeno, LmjC y LmjM3T, fueron seleccionadas para ser empleadas como inoculantes. Dos experimentos de campo llevados a cabo en años consecutivos en áreas con características edafoclimáticas similares a las que presentan las poblaciones de Lmj, lograron la reproducción exitosa de la planta. Se concluyó que un ciclo reproductivo exitoso de Lmj es absolutamente dependiente de la inoculación con sus simbiontes naturales y que la simbiosis debe ser considerada un factor esencial en estrategias de conservación de leguminosas en peligro. La obtención de varias secuencias genómicas de cepas aisladas de Lmj y de otras cepas de Bradyrhizobium reveló una alta similitud entre los genomas de las cepas del Clado I, y permitió la identificación de cinco posibles nuevas especies. Además, se estudiaron tres agrupaciones de genes relacionados con la simbiosis (nod, nif y fix) definiendo un nuevo linaje para las cepas de Lmj, diferente del symbiovar “genistearum” de B. canariense y B. japonicum. La baja diversidad encontrada en el análisis filogenético de los genes simbióticos contrasta con la gran diversidad asociada a genes esenciales. La presencia de plásmidos en cepas del género Bradyrhizobium ha sido descrita en muy pocas ocasiones, sin embargo el análisis de la secuencia genómica de la cepa ISLU101, aislada de Lupinus angustifolius, reveló la presencia de un origen de replicación extracromosómico homólogo al operón repABC, presente en el plásmido de Bradyrhizobium sp BTAi1. Gracias a esta secuencia se identificaron genes homólogos en 19 de 72 cepas ISLU. Filogenéticamente, las secuencias de repABC se agruparon en un grupo monofilético con las de pBTAi1 y separadas de los rizobios de crecimiento rápido. Finalmente, se identificaron sistemas de secreción de proteínas de tipo III (T3SS) en nueve genomas de cepas de Lmj. Los T3SS pueden inyectar proteínas efectoras al interior de células vegetales. Su presencia en rizobios se ha relacionado con la gama de hospedador que pueden nodular y puede tener un efecto beneficioso, neutro o perjudicial en la simbiosis. Los T3SS de las cepas de Lmj codifican para una proteína efectora similar a NopE, un efector dependiente de T3SS descrito en B. diazoefficiens USDA 110T. La proteína NopE de la cepa LmjC se ha caracterizado bioquímicamente. ABSTRACT Lupinus mariae-josephae (Lmj) is a lupine species endemic of a unique small area in Valencia region (Eastern Spain) where the lupine plants thrive in alkaline-limed soils, which preferentially grow in acid or neutral soils. This is the type of soils native lupines of Spain. When this work was initiated, the extension of the endemic area of Lmj was of about 700 squared kilometers confined to the Valencia province. In this area, Lmj thrives in small, isolated patches containing a reduced number of plants, and points to an endemism that can easily became endangered or extinct. Consequently, the Valencia Community authorities gave a ‘‘microreserve” status for conservation of the species. All efforts, using classical strategies directed to extend the area of Lmj growth and ensure its conservation have been so far unsuccessful. The work presented here is directed to improve our knowledge of Lmj ecology and it is centered in the characterization of the rhizobial symbiosis by phenotypic, phylogenetic and genomic analysis as well as in investigate the potential contribution of the symbiosis to improve its conservation. To this end, five different topics have been studied, and results are briefly described here. Extensive details can be followed en the attached, published articles. The first topic deals with the indigenous rhizobial symbionts of the Lmj endemism, and its genetic diversity was investigated. The Lmj root symbionts belong to the Bradyrhizobium genus, and phylogenetic analysis based on core genes identified a large diversity of Bradyrhizobium strains with phenotypic and symbiotic characteristics different from rhizobia nodulating other Lupinus spp. native of Spain. The strains were split in two clades. Clade II contained strains close to classical B. canariense and B. japonicum lineages that establish symbioses with lupines in acid soils of the Mediterranean area. Clade I included Lmj strains that define a new lineage, close to other Bradyrhizobium species as B. jicamae and B. elkanii. The phylogenetic analysis based on symbiotic genes identified only two distinct clusters. The singularity and large diversity of these strains in such a small geographical area makes this an attractive system for studying the evolution and adaptation of the rhizobial symbiont to the plant host. Additionally, the presence of bacteria able to nodulate Lmj in basic soils from Chiapas, Mexico was investigated. Surprisingly, these soils contain bacteria able to effectively nodulate and fix nitrogen with Lmj plants in greenhouse assays. In the second topic, the taxonomic status of the endosymbiotic bacteria of Lmj from Valencia endemism and Chiapas was investigated. Results from phylogenetic analysis of core genes and Average Nucleotide Identity (ANIm) using draft genomic sequences identified new Bradyrhizobium species within strains of Clade I of Lmj endosymbiotic bacteria. Only one of these potentially new species has been defined, meanwhile the others are under process of characterization. The name ‘Bradyrhizobium valentinum’ sp. nov. was proposed for the defined species (type strain LmjM3T= CECT 8364T, LMG 2761T). The third topic was directed to conservation of endangered Lmj in its natural habitat. The relevant conclusion of this experimentation is that the symbiosis should be considered as a relevant factor in the conservation strategies for endangered legumes. First, we showed absence of bacteria able to nodulate Lmj in all the inspected ‘‘terra rossa’’ or alkaline red soils of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands. Then, two efficient nitrogen fixing strains with Lmj plants, LmjC and LmjM3T, were selected as inoculum for seed coating. Two planting experiments were carried out in consecutive years under natural conditions in areas with edapho-climatic characteristics identical to those sustaining natural Lmj populations, and successful reproduction of the plant was achieved. The relevant conclusion from these assays was that the successful reproductive cycle was absolutely dependent on seedling inoculation with effective bradyrhizobia The forth topic deep into the analysis of the genomic of Lmj representative strains. To this end, draft genomic sequences of selected Lmj strains and type strains of Bradyrhizobium spp. were assembled. The comparison analysis of the draft genomic sequences of Lmj strains and related Bradyrhizobium species grouped in Clade I, revealed a high genomic homology among them, and allowed the definition of five potentially new species of Lmj nodulating bacteria. Also, based on the available draft genomic sequences, only three clusters of nod, fix and nif genes from Lmj strains were identified and showed to define a new symbiotic lineage, distant from that of B. canariense and B. japonicum bv. genistearum. The low diversity exhibited by the phylogenetic analysis of symbiotic genes contrast with the large diversity of strains as regards the housekeeping genes analyzed. Besides, the genomic analysis of a Lupinus angustifolius strain ISLU101, revealed the presence of an extrachromosomal replication origin homologous to repABC cluster from plasmid present in Bradyrhizobium spp BTAi1. This repABC cluster gene sequence allowed the identification of extrachromosomic replication origin in 19 out of 72 Bradyrhizobium strains from Lupinus spp., a highly significant result since the absence of plasmids in the Bradyrhizobium genus was traditionally assumed. The repABC gene sequences of these strains grouped them in a unique monophyletic group, related to B. sp. BTAi1 plasmid, but differentiated from the repABC gene cluster of plasmids in fast growing rhizobium strains. The last topic was focused on characterization of type III secreted effectors present in Lmj endosymbiotic bacteria. Type III secretion systems (T3SS) are specialized protein export machineries which can deliver effector proteins into plant cells. The presence of T3SS in rhizobia has frequently been related to the symbiotic nodulation host-range and may have a beneficial or detrimental effect on the symbiosis with legumes. In this context, the presence of T3SS in genomes of nine Lmj strains was investigated, and it was shown the presence of clusters encoding NopE type III-secreted protein similar to the NopE1 and NopE2 of B. diazoefficiens USDA 110T. The putative NopE protein of LmjC strain is at present being characterized regarding its structure and function.

Forest Hydrology, Soil Conservation and Green Barriers in Canary Islands

In volcanic islands, the rainfall regime and its torrential nature, together with the steep slopes and the soil types present are considered to be some of the main factors affecting forest hydrology and soil conservation. In such environments, rain regime is generally irregular and characterized by short and intense rainfalls, which could cause destructive flows at times, followed by long periods of rain absence. The volcanic nature of these islands have as a direct resultant steep slopes which influences the runoff volume and speed, as well as the amount of topsoil susceptible to be detached and transported downstream. The soil type also affects the susceptibility to erosion processes. Andisols are the most typical soil on volcanic islands. Their particularities derive their mineral constituents, called short-range-order products, which provide these soils with an increased structural stability, which in turn reduces their susceptibility to erosion. However, the land use changes and the environmental factors such as rain regime and steep slopes may be determinant factor in destabilizing these soils and ultimately a cause for soil erosion and runoffs, which become a threat to the population downstream. Green barriers have been traditionally used to prevent or reduce these processes, also to enhance the dew effect and the fog water collection, and as a firebreak which acts as a barrier to slow or stop the progress of a wildfire. Wooded species present and subsequently their performance have a major influence on their effectiveness. The use of this natural erosion and fire control methods on volcanic islands is discussed in this paper.

Güímar and La Orotava mega-landslides (Tenerife) and tsunamis deposits in Canary Islands

More than 20 mega-landslides have been described in the Canary Islands affecting the flanks of the volcanic edifices. Gliimar and La Orotava landslides, in Tenerife, are two exceptional cases due to their huge dimensions and outstanding geomorphological features. The estimated volume of these landslides exceed tens of cubic km. Tsunami deposits have been also identified in some of the islands of the archipelago probably associated to the large landslides of the islands flanks. An investigation has been carried out to explain the causes of these large instability processes and their failure mechanisms. One of the main aspects investigated was the geomechanical characteristics of the volcanic rock masses, specially the hyaloclastite rocks forming the substratum underlying the emerged volcanic building. The low strength and high deformability properties of these rocks have played a fundamental role on the stability of the island flanks. The results have shown the gravitational origin of these instability processes as the main failure mechanism. Volcanic eruptions or large earthquakes could be contributing factors to the instability, but according with the data obtained in Gliimar and La Orotava cases they are not necessary as triggering factors. As a result of the field work carried out in the frame of the project, three large tsunami deposits have been identified in the islands of Lanzarote, Tenerifc and Gran Canaria attributed to rnega-Iandslides, possibly related to Guimar and La Orotava. A Sumrnary of their main features is described.

Morphology and distribution of volcanic bombs in Caldera Quemada de Arriba (Lanzarote, Canary Islands): implications for volcanic hazard analysis

Análisis del riesgo volcánico. We show the preliminary results of the study of 561 volcanic bombs ejected from a pyroclastic cone during the 1730-1736 Timanfaya eruption (Lanzarote, Canary Islands). This cone displays the highest concentration of big bombs (major axis higher than 1 m) of Timanfaya. More than 560 bombs have been studied to calculate their reach. The results suggest that bombs of 1t have a reach of 409 m, while bombs up to 28 t have a reach of 248 m. These data may be used to define a security area once a vent has been opened, but also to calculate other data such the initial velocity of ejection. The geomorphological analysis and the study of the deposits also contribute to better understand an undocumented episode of the Timanfaya eruption and also provide important data for volcanic bombs modeling for volcanic hazard analysis.

Assessing forest response-type diversity to natural disturbances in Peninsular Spain and the Balearic Islands = Evaluación de la diversidad de tipos de respuesta a perturbaciones naturales en la España peninsular e Islas Baleares

Disturbances shape forest ecosystems by influencing their composition, structure, and processes. In the Mediterranean Basin, changes in the disturbance regimes have been predicted to occur in the next future with a higher occurrence of extreme events of drought, wildfire, and – to a lesser extent – windstorm. Woody species are the main elements defining the structure and functioning of forest ecosystems. Recently, response-type diversity has been pointed out as an appropriate indicator of ecosystems resilience. For this, we have elaborated a complete response-trait database for the tree and shrubby species considered in the Third Spanish National Forest Inventory (3SNFI). In the database, the presence or absence of nine response traits associated to drought, fire, and wind were assigned to each species. The database reflected the lack of information about some important traits (in particular for shrubby species) and allowed to determine those traits most widely distributed. The information contained in the database was then used to assess a relative index of forest resilience to these disturbances calculated from the abundance of response traits and the species redundancy for each plot of the 3SNFI; considering both tree and shrubby species. In general, few plots showed high values of the resilience index, probably because some traits were scarcely presented in the species and also because most plots presented very few species. The cartographic representation of the index showed low values for the stands located in mountainous ranges, which are mostly composed by species typical from central Europe. In the other side, Eucalyptus plantations in Galicia appeared as one thee the most resilient ecosystems, due to its higher adaptive capacity to persist after the occurrence of drought, fire, and windstorm events. We conclude that the response traits database can constitute a useful tool for forest management and planning and for future research to enhance the forest resilience.

Analysis and Potential of Use of Biomass Energy in Canary Islands, Spain

Biomass has always been associated with the development of the population in the Canary Islands as the first source of elemental energy that was in the archipelago and the main cause of deforestation of forests, which over the years has been replaced by forest fossil fuels. The Canary Islands store a large amount of energy in the form of biomass. This may be important on a small scale for the design of small power plants with similar fuels from agricultural activities, and these plants could supply rural areas that could have self-sufficiency energy. The problem with the Canary Islands for a boost in this achievement is to ensure the supply to the consumer centers or power plants for greater efficiency that must operate continuously, allowing them to have a resource with regularity, quality and at an acceptable cost. In the Canary Islands converge also a unique topography with a very rugged terrain that makes it greater difficult to use and significantly more expensive. In this work all these aspects are studied, giving conclusions, action paths and theoretical potentials.

Identification of Degraded Land in the Canary Islands; Tests and Reviews

Degraded Land is an area that either by natural causes (fires, floods, storms or volcanic eruptions) or more by direct or indirect causes of human action, has been altered or modified from its natural state. Restoration is an activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem. It can be defined as the set of actions taken in order to reverse or reduce the damage caused in the territory. In the case of the Canary Islands there is a high possibility for the territory to suffer processes that degrade the environment, given that the islands are very fragile ecosystems. Added to this they are territories isolated from the continent, which complicates the process of restoring them. In this paper, the different types of common degraded areas in the Canary Islands are identified, as well as the proposed solutions for remediation, such as afforestation of agricultural land or landfill closure and restoration.

Extralimital Senegalese species during Marine Isotope Stages 5.5 and 11 in the Canary Islands (29° N): Sea surface temperature estimates

The presence of Harpa doris Röding, 1798 in marine deposits of the last interglacial period, ~130-120 ka (marine isotope stage or MIS 5.5) in the Canary Islands (Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura) enabled us to compare this occurrence with its present habitat in the Gulf of Guinea and the Cape Verde Islands, well to the south. This comparison leads to the conclusion that sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the waters around the Canary Islands during the last interglacial period were at least 3.3 °C higher than today. H. doris is found in association with the large gastropod Persististrombus latus (Gmelin, 1791) as well as the coral Siderastrea radians (Pallas, 1766). The presence of these extralimital southern,warm-water species in the Canary Islands during the last interglacial period also implies a northward expansion of plankton-feeding larvae in seawater with a high chlorophyll-a content. Such conditionswould require a shortening of the southern arm of the cool Canary Current that dominates the waters around the Canary Islands at present. Marine deposits dating to ~400 ka (MIS 11) are also found on the Canary Islands. In these deposits, the presence of Saccostrea cucullata (Born, 1778) allows a comparison with its present habitat in the Gulf of Guinea. In this analysis, we conclude that SSTs in waters around the Canary Islands during this major interglacial period were at least 4.2 °C higher than today. Middle Pleistocene fossils of S. cucullata have also been found in the western Mediterranean Sea and Morocco, as well as the Cape Verde Islands. If these deposits also date to MIS 11, SST warming could have been a regional phenomenon, including much of the eastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.