On the loading-rate dependence of the Al 7017-T73 fracture-initiation toughness

While static fracture toughness is a widely studied and standardised parameter, its dynamic counterpart has not been exhaustively examined. Therefore, in this research a series of quasi-static and different loading-rate dynamic tests were carried out to determine the evolution of fracture toughness with the velocity of the application of the load on aluminium 7017-T73 alloy. Three-point bending tests of pre-fatigued standard specimens (ASTM E399) at four loading-rates were carried out. The experiments were conducted by employing the subsequent apparatus ordered from lowest to highest load application velocity: a servo-hydraulic universal testing machine, a free-drop tower, a modified Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar and an explosive load testing device. In order to perform the dynamic fracture toughness tests, it was necessary to design and develop some experimental devices. The fracture-initiation toughness of the aluminium 7017-T73 alloy did not exhibit a significant variation for the studied cases. As a conclusion, the research showed that fracture-initiation toughness remained constant regardless of the velocity at which the load was applied.

A novel method for measuring the dynamic fracture-initiation toughness under impulsive loadings

The design and development of a new method for performing fracture toughness tests under impulsive loadings using explosives is presented. The experimental set-up was complemented with pressure transducers and strain gauges in order to measure, respectively, the blast wave that reached the specimen and the loading history. Fracture toughness tests on a 7017-T73 aluminium alloy were carried out by using this device under impulsive loadings. Previous studies reported that such aluminium alloy had very little strain rate sensitivity, which made it an ideal candidate for comparison at different loading rates. The fracture-initiation toughness values of the 7017-T73 aluminium alloy obtained at impulsive loadings did not exhibit a significant variation from the cases studied at lower loading rates. Therefore, the method and device developed for measuring the dynamic fracture-initiation toughness under impulsive loadings was considered suitable for such a purpose

Polypropylene fiber-reinforced self-compacting concrete for the reconstruction of the cathedral of La Laguna, Canary Island, Spain

High performance materials are needed for the reconstruction of such a singular building as a cathedral, since in addition to special mechanical properties, high self compact ability, high durability and high surface quality, are specified. Because of the project’s specifications, the use of polypropylene fiber-reinforced, self-compacting concrete was selected by the engineering office. The low quality of local materials and the lack of experience in applying macro polypropylene fiber for structural reinforcement with these components materials required the development of a pretesting program. To optimize the mix design, performance was evaluated following technical, economical and constructability criteria. Since the addition of fibers reduces concrete self-compactability, many trials were run to determine the optimal mix proportions. The variables introduced were paste volume; the aggregate skeleton of two or three fractions plus limestone filler; fiber type and dosage. Two mix designs were selected from the preliminary results. The first one was used as reference for self-compactability and mechanical properties. The second one was an optimized mix with a reduction in cement content of 20 kg/m3and fiber dosage of 1 kg/m3. For these mix designs, extended testing was carried out to measure the compression and flexural strength, modulus of elasticity, toughness, and water permeability resistance

Microstructural and mechanical study of AL2O3/Er3Al5O12 eutectic rods grown by the laser floating zone method

Eutectic rods of Al2O3–Er3Al5O12 were grown by directional solidification using the laser-heated floating zone method at rates in the range 25–1500 mm/h. Their microstructure and mechanical properties (hardness, toughness and strength) were investigated as a function of the growth rate. A homogeneous and interpenetrated microstructure was found in most cases, and interphase spacing decreased with growth rate following the Hunt–Jackson law. Hardness increased slightly as the interphase spacing decreased while toughness was low and independent of the microstructure. The rods presented very high bending strength as a result of the homogeneous microstructure, and their strength increased rapidly as the interphase spacing decreased, reaching a maximum of 2.7 GPa for the rods grown at 750 mm/h. The bending strength remained constant up to 1300 K and decreased above this temperature. The relationship between the microstructure and the mechanical properties was established from the analysis of the microstructure and of the fracture mechanisms

Mechanical properties of tungsten alloys with Y2O3 and titanium additions

In this research the mechanical behaviour of pure tungsten (W) and its alloys (2 wt.% Ti–0.47 wt.% Y2O3 and 4 wt.% Ti–0.5 wt.% Y2O3) is compared. These tungsten alloys, have been obtained by powder metallurgy. The yield strength, fracture toughness and elastic modulus have been studied in the temperature interval of 25 °C to 1000 °C. The results have shown that the addition of Ti substantially improves the bending strength and toughness of W, but it also dramatically increases the DBTT. On the other hand, the addition of 0.5% Y2O3, is enough to improve noticeably the oxidation behaviour at the higher temperatures. The grain size, fractography and microstructure are studied in these materials. Titanium is a good grain growth inhibitor and effective precursor of liquid phase in HIP. The simultaneous presence of Y2O3 and Ti permits to obtain materials with low pores presence

Microstructure, magnetic and mechanical properties of Ni-Zn ferrites prepared by Powder Injection Moulding

Nowadays, the electronic industry demands small and complex parts as a consequence of the miniaturization of electronic devices. Powder injection moulding (PIM) is an emerging technique for the manufacturing of magnetic ceramics. In this paper, we analyze the sintering process, between 900 °C and 1300 °C, of Ni–Zn ferrites prepared by PIM. In particular, the densification behaviour, microstructure and mechanical properties of samples with toroidal and bar geometry were analyzed at different temperatures. Additionally, the magnetic behaviour (complex permeability and magnetic losses factor) of these compacts was compared with that of samples prepared by conventional powder compaction. Finally, the mechanical behaviour (elastic modulus, flexure strength and fracture toughness) was analyzed as a function of the powder loading of feedstock. The final microstructure of prepared samples was correlated with the macroscopic behaviour. A good agreement was established between the densities and population of defects found in the materials depending on the sintering conditions. In general, the final mechanical and magnetic properties of PIM samples were enhanced relative those obtained by uniaxial compaction.

Curing, defects and mechanical performance of fiber-reinforced composites

Tradicionalmente, la fabricación de materiales compuestos de altas prestaciones se lleva a cabo en autoclave mediante la consolidación de preimpregnados a través de la aplicación simultánea de altas presiones y temperatura. Las elevadas presiones empleadas en autoclave reducen la porosidad de los componentes garantizando unas buenas propiedades mecánicas. Sin embargo, este sistema de fabricación conlleva tiempos de producción largos y grandes inversiones en equipamiento lo que restringe su aplicación a otros sectores alejados del sector aeronáutico. Este hecho ha generado una creciente demanda de sistemas de fabricación alternativos al autoclave. Aunque estos sistemas son capaces de reducir los tiempos de producción y el gasto energético, por lo general, dan lugar a materiales con menores prestaciones mecánicas debido a que se reduce la compactación del material al aplicar presiones mas bajas y, por tanto, la fracción volumétrica de fibras, y disminuye el control de la porosidad durante el proceso. Los modelos numéricos existentes permiten conocer los fundamentos de los mecanismos de crecimiento de poros durante la fabricación de materiales compuestos de matriz polimérica mediante autoclave. Dichos modelos analizan el comportamiento de pequeños poros esféricos embebidos en una resina viscosa. Su validez no ha sido probada, sin embargo, para la morfología típica observada en materiales compuestos fabricados fuera de autoclave, consistente en poros cilíndricos y alargados embebidos en resina y rodeados de fibras continuas. Por otro lado, aunque existe una clara evidencia experimental del efecto pernicioso de la porosidad en las prestaciones mecánicas de los materiales compuestos, no existe información detallada sobre la influencia de las condiciones de procesado en la forma, fracción volumétrica y distribución espacial de los poros en los materiales compuestos. Las técnicas de análisis convencionales para la caracterización microestructural de los materiales compuestos proporcionan información en dos dimensiones (2D) (microscopía óptica y electrónica, radiografía de rayos X, ultrasonidos, emisión acústica) y sólo algunas son adecuadas para el análisis de la porosidad. En esta tesis, se ha analizado el efecto de ciclo de curado en el desarrollo de los poros durante la consolidación de preimpregnados Hexply AS4/8552 a bajas presiones mediante moldeo por compresión, en paneles unidireccionales y multiaxiales utilizando tres ciclos de curado diferentes. Dichos ciclos fueron cuidadosamente diseñados de acuerdo a la caracterización térmica y reológica de los preimpregnados. La fracción volumétrica de poros, su forma y distribución espacial se analizaron en detalle mediante tomografía de rayos X. Esta técnica no destructiva ha demostrado su capacidad para analizar la microestructura de materiales compuestos. Se observó, que la porosidad depende en gran medida de la evolución de la viscosidad dinámica a lo largo del ciclo y que la mayoría de la porosidad inicial procedía del aire atrapado durante el apilamiento de las láminas de preimpregnado. En el caso de los laminados multiaxiales, la porosidad también se vio afectada por la secuencia de apilamiento. En general, los poros tenían forma cilíndrica y se estaban orientados en la dirección de las fibras. Además, la proyección de la población de poros a lo largo de la dirección de la fibra reveló la existencia de una estructura celular de un diámetro aproximado de 1 mm. Las paredes de las celdas correspondían con regiones con mayor densidad de fibra mientras que los poros se concentraban en el interior de las celdas. Esta distribución de la porosidad es el resultado de una consolidación no homogenea. Toda esta información es crítica a la hora de optimizar las condiciones de procesado y proporcionar datos de partida para desarrollar herramientas de simulación de los procesos de fabricación de materiales compuestos fuera de autoclave. Adicionalmente, se determinaron ciertas propiedades mecánicas dependientes de la matriz termoestable con objeto de establecer la relación entre condiciones de procesado y las prestaciones mecánicas. En el caso de los laminados unidireccionales, la resistencia interlaminar depende de la porosidad para fracciones volumétricas de poros superiores 1%. Las mismas tendencias se observaron en el caso de GIIc mientras GIc no se vio afectada por la porosidad. En el caso de los laminados multiaxiales se evaluó la influencia de la porosidad en la resistencia a compresión, la resistencia a impacto a baja velocidad y la resistencia a copresión después de impacto. La resistencia a compresión se redujo con el contenido en poros, pero éste no influyó significativamente en la resistencia a compresión despues de impacto ya que quedó enmascarada por otros factores como la secuencia de apilamiento o la magnitud del daño generado tras el impacto. Finalmente, el efecto de las condiciones de fabricación en el proceso de compactación mediante moldeo por compresión en laminados unidireccionales fue simulado mediante el método de los elementos finitos en una primera aproximación para simular la fabricación de materiales compuestos fuera de autoclave. Los parámetros del modelo se obtuvieron mediante experimentos térmicos y reológicos del preimpregnado Hexply AS4/8552. Los resultados obtenidos en la predicción de la reducción de espesor durante el proceso de consolidación concordaron razonablemente con los resultados experimentales. Manufacturing of high performance polymer-matrix composites is normally carried out by means of autoclave using prepreg tapes stacked and consolidated under the simultaneous application of pressure and temperature. High autoclave pressures reduce the porosity in the laminate and ensure excellent mechanical properties. However, this manufacturing route is expensive in terms of capital investment and processing time, hindering its application in many industrial sectors. This fact has driven the demand of alternative out-of-autoclave processing routes. These techniques claim to produce composite parts faster and at lower cost but the mechanical performance is also reduced due to the lower fiber content and to the higher porosity. Corrient numerical models are able to simulate the mechanisms of void growth in polymer-matrix composites processed in autoclave. However these models are restricted to small spherical voids surrounded by a viscous resin. Their validity is not proved for long cylindrical voids in a viscous matrix surrounded by aligned fibers, the standard morphology observed in out-of-autoclave composites. In addition, there is an experimental evidence of the detrimental effect of voids on the mechanical performance of composites but, there is detailed information regarding the influence of curing conditions on the actual volume fraction, shape and spatial distribution of voids within the laminate. The standard techniques of microstructural characterization of composites (optical or electron microscopy, X-ray radiography, ultrasonics) provide information in two dimensions and are not always suitable to determine the porosity or void population. Moreover, they can not provide 3D information. The effect of curing cycle on the development of voids during consolidation of AS4/8552 prepregs at low pressure by compression molding was studied in unidirectional and multiaxial panels. They were manufactured using three different curing cycles carefully designed following the rheological and thermal analysis of the raw prepregs. The void volume fraction, shape and spatial distribution were analyzed in detail by means of X-ray computed microtomography, which has demonstrated its potential for analyzing the microstructural features of composites. It was demonstrated that the final void volume fraction depended on the evolution of the dynamic viscosity throughout the cycle. Most of the initial voids were the result of air entrapment and wrinkles created during lay-up. Differences in the final void volume fraction depended on the processing conditions for unidirectional and multiaxial panels. Voids were rod-like shaped and were oriented parallel to the fibers and concentrated in channels along the fiber orientation. X-ray computer tomography analysis of voids along the fiber direction showed a cellular structure with an approximate cell diameter of 1 mm. The cell walls were fiber-rich regions and porosity was localized at the center of the cells. This porosity distribution within the laminate was the result of inhomogeneous consolidation. This information is critical to optimize processing parameters and to provide inputs for virtual testing and virtual processing tools. In addition, the matrix-controlled mechanical properties of the panels were measured in order to establish the relationship between processing conditions and mechanical performance. The interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) and the interlaminar toughness (GIc and GIIc) were selected to evaluate the effect of porosity on the mechanical performance of unidirectional panels. The ILSS was strongly affected by the porosity when the void contents was higher than 1%. The same trends were observed in the case of GIIc while GIc was insensitive to the void volume fraction. Additionally, the mechanical performance of multiaxial panels in compression, low velocity impact and compression after impact (CAI) was measured to address the effect of processing conditions. The compressive strength decreased with porosity and ply-clustering. However, the porosity did not influence the impact resistance and the coompression after impact strength because the effect of porosity was masked by other factors as the damage due to impact or the laminate lay-up. Finally, the effect of the processing conditions on the compaction behavior of unidirectional AS4/8552 panels manufactured by compression moulding was simulated using the finite element method, as a first approximation to more complex and accurate models for out-of autoclave curing and consolidation of composite laminates. The model parameters were obtained from rheological and thermo-mechanical experiments carried out in raw prepreg samples. The predictions of the thickness change during consolidation were in reasonable agreement with the experimental results.

Desarrollo de nuevos tratamientos térmicos para aleaciones avanzadas de interés aeroespacial

La corrosión bajo tensiones (SCC) es un problema de gran importancia en las aleaciones de aluminio de máxima resistencia (serie Al-Zn-Mg-Cu). La utilización de tratamientos térmicos sobremadurados, en particular el T73, ha conseguido prácticamente eliminar la susceptibilidad a corrosión bajo tensiones en dichas aleaciones pero a costa de reducir su resistencia mecánica. Desde entonces se ha tratado de optimizar simultáneamente ambos comportamientos, encontrándose para ello diversos inconvenientes entre los que destacan: la dificultad de medir experimentalmente el crecimiento de grieta por SCC, y el desconocimiento de las causas y el mecanismo por el cual se produce la SCC. Los objetivos de esta Tesis son mejorar el sistema de medición de grietas y profundizar en el conocimiento de la SCC, con el fin de obtener tratamientos térmicos que aúnen un óptimo comportamiento tanto en SCC como mecánico en las aleaciones de aluminio de máxima resistencia utilizadas en aeronáutica. Para conseguir los objetivos anteriormente descritos se han realizado unos cuarenta tratamientos térmicos diferentes, de los cuales la gran mayoría son nuevos, para profundizar en el conocimiento de la influencia de la microestructura (fundamentalmente, de los precipitados coherentes) en el comportamiento de las aleaciones Al-Zn-Mg-Cu, y estudiar la viabilidad de nuevos tratamientos apoyados en el conocimiento adquirido. Con el fin de obtener unos resultados aplicables a productos o semiproductos de aplicación aeronáutica, los tratamientos térmicos se han realizado a trozos grandes de una plancha de 30 mm de espesor de la aleación de aluminio 7475, muy utilizada en las estructuras aeronáuticas. Asimismo con el objeto de conseguir una mayor fiabilidad de los resultados obtenidos se han utilizado, normalmente, tres probetas de cada tratamiento para los diferentes ensayos realizados. Para la caracterización de dichos tratamientos se han utilizado diversas técnicas: medida de dureza y conductividad eléctrica, ensayos de tracción, calorimetría diferencial de barrido (DSC), metalografía, fractografía, microscopia electrónica de transmisión (MET) y de barrido (MEB), y ensayos de crecimiento de grieta en probeta DCB, que a su vez han permitido hacer una estimación del comportamiento en tenacidad del material. Las principales conclusiones del estudio realizado se pueden resumir en las siguientes: Se han diseñado y desarrollado nuevos métodos de medición de grieta basados en el empleo de la técnica de ultrasonidos, que permiten medir el crecimiento de grieta por corrosión bajo tensiones con la precisión y fiabilidad necesarias para valorar adecuadamente la susceptibilidad a corrosión bajo tensiones. La mejora de medida de la posición del frente de grieta ha dado lugar, entre otras cosas, a la definición de un nuevo ensayo a iniciación en probetas preagrietadas. Asimismo, se ha deducido una nueva ecuación que permite calcular el factor de intensidad de tensiones existente en punta de grieta en probetas DCB teniendo en cuenta la influencia de la desviación del plano de crecimiento de la grieta del plano medio de la probeta. Este aspecto ha sido determinante para poder explicar los resultados experimentales obtenidos ya que el crecimiento de la grieta por un plano paralelo al plano medio de la probeta DCB pero alejado de él reduce notablemente el factor de intensidades de tensiones que actúa en punta de grieta y modifica las condiciones reales del ensayo. Por otro lado, se han identificado los diferentes constituyentes de la microestructura de precipitación de todos los tratamientos térmicos estudiados y, en especial, se ha conseguido constatar (mediante MET y DSC) la existencia de zonas de Guinier-Preston del tipo GP(II) en la microestructura de numerosos tratamientos térmicos (no descrita en la bibliografía para las aleaciones del tipo de la estudiada) lo que ha permitido establecer una nueva interpretación de la evolución de la microestructura en los diferentes tratamientos. Al hilo de lo anterior, se han definido nuevas secuencias de precipitación para este tipo de aleaciones, que han permitido entender mejor la constitución de la microestructura y su relación con las propiedades en los diferentes tratamientos térmicos estudiados. De igual manera, se ha explicado el papel de los diferentes microconstituyentes en diversas propiedades mecánicas (propiedades a tracción, dureza y tenacidad KIa); en particular, el estudio realizado de la relación de la microestructura con la tenacidad KIa es inédito. Por otra parte, se ha correlacionado el comportamiento en corrosión bajo tensiones, tanto en la etapa de incubación de grieta como en la de propagación, con las características medidas de los diferentes constituyentes microestructurales de los tratamientos térmicos ensayados, tanto de interior como de límite de grano, habiéndose obtenido que la microestructura de interior de grano tiene una mayor influencia en el comportamiento en corrosión bajo tensiones que la de límite de grano. De forma especial, se ha establecido la importancia capital, y muy negativa, de la presencia en la microestructura de zonas de Guinier-Preston en el crecimiento de la grieta por corrosión bajo tensiones. Finalmente, como consecuencia de todo lo anterior, se ha propuesto un nuevo mecanismo por el que se produce la corrosión bajo tensiones en este tipo de aleaciones de aluminio, y que de forma muy resumida se puede concretar lo siguiente: la acumulación de hidrógeno (formado, básicamente, por un proceso corrosivo de disolución anódica) delante de la zonas GP (en especial, de las zonas GP(I)) próximas a la zona libre de precipitados que se desarrolla alrededor del límite de grano provoca enfragilización local y causa el rápido crecimiento de grieta característico de algunos tratamientos térmicos de este tipo de aleaciones. ABSTRACT The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a major problem in the aluminum alloys of high resistance (series Al-Zn-Mg-Cu). The use of overaged heat treatments, particularly T73 has achieved virtually eliminate the susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking in such alloys but at the expense of reducing its mechanical strength. Since then we have tried to simultaneously optimize both behaviors, several drawbacks found for it among them: the difficulty of measuring experimentally the SCC crack growth, and ignorance of the causes and the mechanism by which SCC occurs. The objectives of this thesis are to improve the measurement system of cracks and deeper understanding of the SCC, in order to obtain heat treatments that combine optimum performance in both SCC and maximum mechanical strength in aluminum alloys used in aerospace To achieve the above objectives have been made about forty different heat treatments, of which the vast majority are new, to deepen the understanding of the influence of microstructure (mainly of coherent precipitates) in the behavior of the alloys Al -Zn-Mg-Cu, and study the feasibility of new treatments supported by the knowledge gained. To obtain results for products or semi-finished aircraft application, heat treatments were performed at a large pieces plate 30 mm thick aluminum alloy 7475, widely used in aeronautical structures. Also in order to achieve greater reliability of the results obtained have been used, normally, three specimens of each treatment for various tests. For the characterization of these treatments have been used several techniques: measurement of hardness and electrical conductivity, tensile testing, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), metallography, fractography, transmission (TEM) and scanning (SEM) electron microscopy, and crack growth tests on DCB specimen, which in turn have allowed to estimate the behavior of the material in fracture toughness. The main conclusions of the study can be summarized as follows: We have designed and developed new methods for measuring crack based on the use of the ultrasound technique, for measuring the growth of stress corrosion cracks with the accuracy and reliability needed to adequately assess the susceptibility to stress corrosion. Improved position measurement of the crack front has resulted, among other things, the definition of a new initiation essay in pre cracked specimens. Also, it has been inferred a new equation to calculate the stress intensity factor in crack tip existing in DCB specimens considering the influence of the deviation of the plane of the crack growth of the medium plane of the specimen. This has been crucial to explain the experimental results obtained since the crack growth by a plane parallel to the medium plane of the DCB specimen but away from it greatly reduces the stress intensity factor acting on the crack tip and modifies the actual conditions of the essay. Furthermore, we have identified the various constituents of the precipitation microstructure of all heat treatments studied and, in particular note has been achieved (by TEM and DSC) the existence of the type GP (II) of Guinier-Preston zones in the microstructure of several heat treatments (not described in the literature for alloys of the type studied) making it possible to establish a new interpretation of the evolution of the microstructure in the different treatments. In line with the above, we have defined new precipitation sequences for these alloys, which have allowed a better understanding of the formation of the microstructure in relation to the properties of different heat treatments studied. Similarly, explained the role of different microconstituents in various mechanical properties (tensile properties, hardness and toughness KIa), in particular, the study of the relationship between the tenacity KIa microstructure is unpublished. Moreover, has been correlated to the stress corrosion behavior, both in the incubation step as the crack propagation, with the measured characteristics of the various microstructural constituents heat treatments tested, both interior and boundary grain, having obtained the internal microstructure of grain has a greater influence on the stress corrosion cracking behavior in the grain boundary. In a special way, has established the importance, and very negative, the presence in the microstructure of Guinier-Preston zones in crack growth by stress corrosion. Finally, following the above, we have proposed a new mechanism by which stress corrosion cracking occurs in this type of aluminum alloy, and, very briefly, one can specify the following: the accumulation of hydrogen (formed basically by a corrosive process of anodic dissolution) in front of the GP zones (especially the GP (I) zones) near the precipitates free zone that develops around grain boundary causes local embrittlement which characterizes rapid crack growth of some heat treatments such alloys.

Intraply fracture of fiber-reinforced composites: microscopic mechanisms and modeling

The fracture behavior parallel to the fibers of an E-glass/epoxy unidirectional laminate was studied by means of three-point tests on notched beams. Selected tests were carried out within a scanning electron microscope to ascertain the damage and fracture micromechanisms upon loading. The mechanical behavior of the notched beam was simulated within the framework of the embedded cell model, in which the actual composite microstructure was resolved in front of the notch tip. In addition, matrix and interface properties were independently measured in situ using a nanoindentor. The numerical simulations very accurately predicted the macroscopic response of the composite as well as the damage development and crack growth in front of the notch tip, demonstrating the ability of the embedded cell approach to simulate the fracture behavior of heterogeneous materials. Finally, this methodology was exploited to ascertain the influence of matrix and interface properties on the intraply toughness.

High temperature nanoindentation behavior of Al/SiC multilayers

Nanoscale Al/SiC composite laminates have unique properties, such as high strength, high toughness, and damage tolerance. In this article, the high-temperature nanoindentation response of Al/SiC nanolaminates is explored from room temperature up to 300_C. Selected nanoindentations were analyzed postmortem using focused ion beam and transmission electron microscopy to ascertain the microstructural changes and the deformation mechanisms operating at high temperature.

A methodology to measure the interface shear strength by means of the fiber push-in test

A methodology is presented to measure the fiber/matrix interface shear strength in composites. The strategy is based on performing a fiber push-in test at the central fiber of highly-packed fiber clusters with hexagonal symmetry which are often found in unidirectional composites with a high volume fraction of fibers. The mechanics of this test was analyzed in detail by means of three-dimensional finite element simulations. In particular, the influence of different parameters (interface shear strength, toughness and friction as well as fiber longitudinal elastic modulus and curing stresses) on the critical load at the onset of debonding was established. From the results of the numerical simulations, a simple relationship between the critical load and the interface shear strength is proposed. The methodology was validated in an unidirectional C/epoxy composite and the advantages and limitations of the proposed methodology are indicated.

Sequential origin in the high performance properties of spider dragline silk

Major ampullate (MA) dragline silk supports spider orb webs, combining strength and extensibility in the toughest biomaterial. MA silk evolved ~376 MYA and identifying how evolutionary changes in proteins influenced silk mechanics is crucial for biomimetics, but is hindered by high spinning plasticity. We use supercontraction to remove that variation and characterize MA silk across the spider phylogeny. We show that mechanical performance is conserved within, but divergent among, major lineages, evolving in correlation with discrete changes in proteins. Early MA silk tensile strength improved rapidly with the origin of GGX amino acid motifs and increased repetitiveness. Tensile strength then maximized in basal entelegyne spiders, ~230 MYA. Toughness subsequently improved through increased extensibility within orb spiders, coupled with the origin of a novel protein (MaSp2). Key changes in MA silk proteins therefore correlate with the sequential evolution high performance orb spider silk and could aid design of biomimetic fibers.

Failure analysis of prestressed anchor bars

Three broken steel bars from a sewed crack in a dam are reported. The inspection of the fracture surfaces of the prestressed bars suggests that fractures were triggered by small cracks and by the inherent brittleness of the bars, as fracture toughness was about 40 MPa m1/2. The analysis of the failures shows that the usual design requirements for prestressing bars fail to warn against brittle failures if some damage exists. Some recommendations, based on the concept of damage tolerance, are suggested to avoid similar unfortunate incidents.

Tuning the properties of carbon fiber-reinforced poly (phenylene sulphide) laminates via incorporation of inorganic fullerene-like WS2 nanoparticles

Novel carbon fiber (CF)-reinforced poly(phenylene sulphide) (PPS) laminates incorporating inorganic fullerene-like tungsten disulfide (IF-WS2) nanoparticles were prepared via melt-blending and hot-press processing. The influence of the IF-WS2 on the morphology, thermal, mechanical and tribological properties of PPS/CF composites was investigated. Efficient nanoparticle dispersion within the matrix was attained without using surfactants. A progressive rise in thermal stability was found with increasing IF-WS2 loading, as revealed by thermogravimetric analysis. The addition of low nanoparticle contents retarded the crystallization of the matrix, whereas concentrations equal or higher than 1.0 wt% increased both the crystallization temperature and degree of crystallinity compared to those of PPS/CF. Mechanical tests indicated that with only 1.0 wt% IF-WS2 the flexural modulus and strength of PPS/CF improved by 17 and 14%, respectively, without loss in toughness, ascribed to a synergistic effect between the two fillers. A significant enhancement in the storage modulus and glass transition temperature was also observed. Moreover, the wear rate and coefficient of friction strongly decreased, attributed to the lubricant role of the IF-WS2 combined with their reinforcing effect. These inorganic nanoparticles show great potential to improve the mechanical and tribological properties of conventional thermoplastic/CF composites for structural applications.

Mechanical Characterization of Multicrystalline Silicon Substrates for Solar Cell Applications

The possibility of using more economical silicon feedstock, i.e. as support for epitaxial solar cells, is of interest when the cost reduction and the properties are attractive. We have investigated the mechanical behaviour of two blocks of upgraded metallurgical silicon, which is known to present high content of impurities even after being purified by the directional solidification process. These impurities are mainly metals like Al and silicon compounds. Thus, it is important to characterize their effect in order to improve cell performance and to ensure the survival of the wafers throughout the solar value chain. Microstructure and mechanical properties were studied by means of ring on ring and three point bending tests. Additionally, elastic modulus and fracture toughness were measured. These results showed that it is possible to obtain marked improvements in toughness when impurities act as microscopic internal crack arrestors. However, the same impurities can be initiators of damage due to residual thermal stresses introduced during the crystallization process.