Processing of ultra-wideband low-frequency signals, for application in Foliage Penetration (FOPEN) Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems

Foliage Penetration (FOPEN) radar systems were introduced in 1960, and have been constantly improved by several organizations since that time. The use of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) approaches for this application has important advantages, due to the need for high resolution in two dimensions. The design of this type of systems, however, includes some complications that are not present in standard SAR systems. FOPEN SAR systems need to operate with a low central frequency (VHF or UHF bands) in order to be able to penetrate the foliage. High bandwidth is also required to obtain high resolution. Due to the low central frequency, large integration angles are required during SAR image formation, and therefore the Range Migration Algorithm (RMA) is used. This project thesis identifies the three main complications that arise due to these requirements. First, a high fractional bandwidth makes narrowband propagation models no longer valid. Second, the VHF and UHF bands are used by many communications systems. The transmitted signal spectrum needs to be notched to avoid interfering them. Third, those communications systems cause Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) on the received signal. The thesis carries out a thorough analysis of the three problems, their degrading effects and possible solutions to compensate them. The UWB model is applied to the SAR signal, and the degradation induced by it is derived. The result is tested through simulation of both a single pulse stretch processor and the complete RMA image formation. Both methods show that the degradation is negligible, and therefore the UWB propagation effect does not need compensation. A technique is derived to design a notched transmitted signal. Then, its effect on the SAR image formation is evaluated analytically. It is shown that the stretch processor introduces a processing gain that reduces the degrading effects of the notches. The remaining degrading effect after processing gain is assessed through simulation, and an experimental graph of degradation as a function of percentage of nulled frequencies is obtained. The RFI is characterized and its effect on the SAR processor is derived. Once again, a processing gain is found to be introduced by the receiver. As the RFI power can be much higher than that of the desired signal, an algorithm is proposed to remove the RFI from the received signal before RMA processing. This algorithm is a modification of the Chirp Least Squares Algorithm (CLSA) explained in [4], which adapts it to deramped signals. The algorithm is derived analytically and then its performance is evaluated through simulation, showing that it is effective in removing the RFI and reducing the degradation caused by both RFI and notching. Finally, conclusions are drawn as to the importance of each one of the problems in SAR system design.

Vehicular traffic surveillance and road lane detection using radar interferometry

Speed enforcement on public roadways is an important issue in order to guarantee road security and to reduce the number and seriousness of traffic accidents. Traditionally, this task has been partially solved using radar and/or laser technologies and, more recently, using video-camera based systems. All these systems have significant shortcomings that have yet to be overcome. The main drawback of classical Doppler radar technology is that the velocity measurement fails when several vehicles are in the radars beam. Modern radar systems are able to measure speed and range between vehicle and radar. However, this is not enough to discriminate the lane where the vehicle is driving on. The limitation of several vehicles in the beam is overcome using laser technology. However, laser systems have another important limitation: They cannot measure the speed of several vehicles simultaneously. Novel video-camera systems, based on license plate identification, solve the previous drawbacks, but they have the problem that they can only measure average speed but never top-speed. This paper studies the feasibility of using an interferometric linear frequency modulated continuous wave radar to improve top-speed enforcement on roadways. Two different systems based on down-the-road and across-the-road radar configurations are presented. The main advantage of the proposed solutions is they can simultaneously measure speed, range, and lane of several vehicles, allowing the univocal identification of the offenders. A detailed analysis about the operation and accuracy of these solutions is reported. In addition, the feasibility of the proposed techniques has been demonstrated with simulations and real experiments using a Ka-band interferometric radar developed by our research group.

A compact lightweight multipurpose ground-penetrating radar for glaciological applications

We describe a compact lightweight impulse radar for radio-echo sounding of subsurface structures designed specifically for glaciological applications. The radar operates at frequencies between 10 and 75 MHz. Its main advantages are that it has a high signal-to-noise ratio and a corresponding wide dynamic range of 132 dB due mainly to its ability to perform real-time stacking (up to 4096 traces) as well as to the high transmitted power (peak voltage 2800 V). The maximum recording time window, 40 ?s at 100 MHz sampling frequency, results in possible radar returns from as deep as 3300 m. It is a versatile radar, suitable for different geophysical measurements (common-offset profiling, common midpoint, transillumination, etc.) and for different profiling set-ups, such as a snowmobile and sledge convoy or carried in a backpack and operated by a single person. Its low power consumption (6.6 W for the transmitter and 7.5 W for the receiver) allows the system to operate under battery power for mayor que7 hours with a total weight of menor que9 kg for all equipment, antennas and batteries.

Low-cost CW-LFM radar sensor at 100 GHz

This paper presents a W-band high-resolution radar sensor for short-range applications. Low-cost technologies have been properly selected in order to implement a versatile and easily scalable radar system. A large operational bandwidth of 9 GHz, required for obtaining high-range resolution, is attained by means of a frequency multiplication-based architecture. The system characterization to identify the performance-limiting stages and the subsequent design optimization are presented. The assessment of system performance for several representative applications has been carried out.

Aspects of a phased array radar feed and bias network design

Radar technologies have been developed to improve the efficiency when detecting targets. Radar is a system composed by several devices connected and working together. Depending on the type of radar, the improvements are focused on different functionalities of the radar. One of the most important devices composing a radar is the antenna, that sends the radio-frequency signal to the space in order to detect targets. This project is focused on a specific type of radar called phased array radar. This type of radar is characterized by its antenna, which consist on a linear array of radiating elements, in this particular case, eight dipoles working at the frequency band S. The main advantage introduced by the phased array antenna is that using the fundamentals of arrays, the directivity of the antenna can change by shifting the phase of the signal at the input of each radiating element. This can be done using phase shifters. Phase shifter consists on a device which produces a phase shift in the radio-frequency input signal depending on a control DC voltage. Using a phased array antenna allows changing the directivity of the antenna without a mechanical rotating system. The objective of this project is to design the feed network and the bias network of the phased antenna. The feed network consists on a parallel-fed network composed by power dividers that sends the radio-frequency signal from the source to each radiating element of the antenna. The bias network consists on a system that generates the control DC voltages supplied to the phase shifters in order to change the directivity. The architecture of the bias network is composed by a software, implemented in Matlab and run in a laptop which is connected to a micro-controller by a serial communication port. The software calculates the control DC voltages needed to obtain a determined directivity or scan angle. These values are sent by the serial communication port to the micro-controller as data. Then the micro-controller generates the desired control DC voltages and supplies them to the phase shifters. In this project two solutions for bias network are designed. Each one is tested and final conclusions are obtained to determine the advantages and disadvantages. Finally a graphic user interface is developed in order to make the system easy to use. RESUMEN. Las tecnologías empleadas por lo dispositivos radar se han ido desarrollando para mejorar su eficiencia y usabilidad. Un radar es un sistema formado por varios subsistemas conectados entre sí. Por lo que dependiendo del tipo de radar las mejoras se centran en los subsistemas correspondientes. Uno de los elementos más importantes de un radar es la antena. Esta se emplea para enviar la señal de radiofrecuencia al espacio y así poder detectar los posibles obstáculos del entorno. Este proyecto se centra en un tipo específico de radar llamado phased array radar. Este tipo de radar se caracteriza por la antena que es un array de antenas, en concreto para este proyecto se trata de un array lineal de ocho dipolos en la banda de frequencia S. El uso de una antena de tipo phased array supone una ventaja importante. Empleando los fundamentos de radiación aplicado a array de antenas se obtiene que la directividad de la antena puede ser modificada. Esto se consigue aplicando distintos desfasajes a la señal de radiofrecuencia que alimenta a cada elemento del array. Para aplicar los desfasajes se emplea un desplazador de fase, este dispositivo aplica una diferencia de fase a su salida con respecto a la señal de entrada dependiendo de una tensión continua de control. Por tanto el empleo de una antena de tipo phased array supone una gran ventaja puesto que no se necesita un sistema de rotación para cambiar la directividad de la antena. El objetivo principal del proyecto consiste en el diseño de la red de alimentación y la red de polarización de la antena de tipo phased array. La red de alimentación consiste en un circuito pasivo que permite alimentar a cada elemento del array con la misma cantidad de señal. Dicha red estará formada por divisores de potencia pasivos y su configuración será en paralelo. Por otro lado la red de polarización consiste en el diseño de un sistema automático que permite cambiar la directividad de la antena. Este sistema consiste en un programa en Matlab que es ejecutado en un ordenador conectado a un micro-controlador mediante una comunicación serie. El funcionamiento se basa en calcular las tensiones continuas de control, que necesitan los desplazadores de fase, mediante un programa en Matlab y enviarlos como datos al micro-controlador. Dicho micro-controlador genera las tensiones de control deseadas y las proporciona a cada desplazador de fase, obteniendo así la directividad deseada. Debido al amplio abanico de posibilidades, se obtienen dos soluciones que son sometidas a pruebas. Se obtienen las ventajas y desventajas de cada una. Finalmente se implementa una interfaz gráfica de usuario con el objetivo de hacer dicho sistema manejable y entendible para cualquier usuario.

Diseño de algoritmos de guerra electrónica y radar para su implementación en sistemas de tiempo real

Esta tesis se centra en el estudio y desarrollo de algoritmos de guerra electrónica {electronic warfare, EW) y radar para su implementación en sistemas de tiempo real. La llegada de los sistemas de radio, radar y navegación al terreno militar llevó al desarrollo de tecnologías para combatirlos. Así, el objetivo de los sistemas de guerra electrónica es el control del espectro electomagnético. Una de la funciones de la guerra electrónica es la inteligencia de señales {signals intelligence, SIGINT), cuya labor es detectar, almacenar, analizar, clasificar y localizar la procedencia de todo tipo de señales presentes en el espectro. El subsistema de inteligencia de señales dedicado a las señales radar es la inteligencia electrónica {electronic intelligence, ELINT). Un sistema de tiempo real es aquel cuyo factor de mérito depende tanto del resultado proporcionado como del tiempo en que se da dicho resultado. Los sistemas radar y de guerra electrónica tienen que proporcionar información lo más rápido posible y de forma continua, por lo que pueden encuadrarse dentro de los sistemas de tiempo real. La introducción de restricciones de tiempo real implica un proceso de realimentación entre el diseño del algoritmo y su implementación en plataformas “hardware”. Las restricciones de tiempo real son dos: latencia y área de la implementación. En esta tesis, todos los algoritmos presentados se han implementado en plataformas del tipo field programmable gate array (FPGA), ya que presentan un buen compromiso entre velocidad, coste total, consumo y reconfigurabilidad. La primera parte de la tesis está centrada en el estudio de diferentes subsistemas de un equipo ELINT: detección de señales mediante un detector canalizado, extracción de los parámetros de pulsos radar, clasificación de modulaciones y localization pasiva. La transformada discreta de Fourier {discrete Fourier transform, DFT) es un detector y estimador de frecuencia quasi-óptimo para señales de banda estrecha en presencia de ruido blanco. El desarrollo de algoritmos eficientes para el cálculo de la DFT, conocidos como fast Fourier transform (FFT), han situado a la FFT como el algoritmo más utilizado para la detección de señales de banda estrecha con requisitos de tiempo real. Así, se ha diseñado e implementado un algoritmo de detección y análisis espectral para su implementación en tiempo real. Los parámetros más característicos de un pulso radar son su tiempo de llegada y anchura de pulso. Se ha diseñado e implementado un algoritmo capaz de extraer dichos parámetros. Este algoritmo se puede utilizar con varios propósitos: realizar un reconocimiento genérico del radar que transmite dicha señal, localizar la posición de dicho radar o bien puede utilizarse como la parte de preprocesado de un clasificador automático de modulaciones. La clasificación automática de modulaciones es extremadamente complicada en entornos no cooperativos. Un clasificador automático de modulaciones se divide en dos partes: preprocesado y el algoritmo de clasificación. Los algoritmos de clasificación basados en parámetros representativos calculan diferentes estadísticos de la señal de entrada y la clasifican procesando dichos estadísticos. Los algoritmos de localization pueden dividirse en dos tipos: triangulación y sistemas cuadráticos. En los algoritmos basados en triangulación, la posición se estima mediante la intersección de las rectas proporcionadas por la dirección de llegada de la señal. En cambio, en los sistemas cuadráticos, la posición se estima mediante la intersección de superficies con igual diferencia en el tiempo de llegada (time difference of arrival, TDOA) o diferencia en la frecuencia de llegada (frequency difference of arrival, FDOA). Aunque sólo se ha implementado la estimación del TDOA y FDOA mediante la diferencia de tiempos de llegada y diferencia de frecuencias, se presentan estudios exhaustivos sobre los diferentes algoritmos para la estimación del TDOA, FDOA y localización pasiva mediante TDOA-FDOA. La segunda parte de la tesis está dedicada al diseño e implementación filtros discretos de respuesta finita (finite impulse response, FIR) para dos aplicaciones radar: phased array de banda ancha mediante filtros retardadores (true-time delay, TTD) y la mejora del alcance de un radar sin modificar el “hardware” existente para que la solución sea de bajo coste. La operación de un phased array de banda ancha mediante desfasadores no es factible ya que el retardo temporal no puede aproximarse mediante un desfase. La solución adoptada e implementada consiste en sustituir los desfasadores por filtros digitales con retardo programable. El máximo alcance de un radar depende de la relación señal a ruido promedio en el receptor. La relación señal a ruido depende a su vez de la energía de señal transmitida, potencia multiplicado por la anchura de pulso. Cualquier cambio hardware que se realice conlleva un alto coste. La solución que se propone es utilizar una técnica de compresión de pulsos, consistente en introducir una modulación interna a la señal, desacoplando alcance y resolución. ABSTRACT This thesis is focused on the study and development of electronic warfare (EW) and radar algorithms for real-time implementation. The arrival of radar, radio and navigation systems to the military sphere led to the development of technologies to fight them. Therefore, the objective of EW systems is the control of the electromagnetic spectrum. Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) is one of the EW functions, whose mission is to detect, collect, analyze, classify and locate all kind of electromagnetic emissions. Electronic intelligence (ELINT) is the SIGINT subsystem that is devoted to radar signals. A real-time system is the one whose correctness depends not only on the provided result but also on the time in which this result is obtained. Radar and EW systems must provide information as fast as possible on a continuous basis and they can be defined as real-time systems. The introduction of real-time constraints implies a feedback process between the design of the algorithms and their hardware implementation. Moreover, a real-time constraint consists of two parameters: Latency and area of the implementation. All the algorithms in this thesis have been implemented on field programmable gate array (FPGAs) platforms, presenting a trade-off among performance, cost, power consumption and reconfigurability. The first part of the thesis is related to the study of different key subsystems of an ELINT equipment: Signal detection with channelized receivers, pulse parameter extraction, modulation classification for radar signals and passive location algorithms. The discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is a nearly optimal detector and frequency estimator for narrow-band signals buried in white noise. The introduction of fast algorithms to calculate the DFT, known as FFT, reduces the complexity and the processing time of the DFT computation. These properties have placed the FFT as one the most conventional methods for narrow-band signal detection for real-time applications. An algorithm for real-time spectral analysis for user-defined bandwidth, instantaneous dynamic range and resolution is presented. The most characteristic parameters of a pulsed signal are its time of arrival (TOA) and the pulse width (PW). The estimation of these basic parameters is a fundamental task in an ELINT equipment. A basic pulse parameter extractor (PPE) that is able to estimate all these parameters is designed and implemented. The PPE may be useful to perform a generic radar recognition process, perform an emitter location technique and can be used as the preprocessing part of an automatic modulation classifier (AMC). Modulation classification is a difficult task in a non-cooperative environment. An AMC consists of two parts: Signal preprocessing and the classification algorithm itself. Featurebased algorithms obtain different characteristics or features of the input signals. Once these features are extracted, the classification is carried out by processing these features. A feature based-AMC for pulsed radar signals with real-time requirements is studied, designed and implemented. Emitter passive location techniques can be divided into two classes: Triangulation systems, in which the emitter location is estimated with the intersection of the different lines of bearing created from the estimated directions of arrival, and quadratic position-fixing systems, in which the position is estimated through the intersection of iso-time difference of arrival (TDOA) or iso-frequency difference of arrival (FDOA) quadratic surfaces. Although TDOA and FDOA are only implemented with time of arrival and frequency differences, different algorithms for TDOA, FDOA and position estimation are studied and analyzed. The second part is dedicated to FIR filter design and implementation for two different radar applications: Wideband phased arrays with true-time delay (TTD) filters and the range improvement of an operative radar with no hardware changes to minimize costs. Wideband operation of phased arrays is unfeasible because time delays cannot be approximated by phase shifts. The presented solution is based on the substitution of the phase shifters by FIR discrete delay filters. The maximum range of a radar depends on the averaged signal to noise ratio (SNR) at the receiver. Among other factors, the SNR depends on the transmitted signal energy that is power times pulse width. Any possible hardware change implies high costs. The proposed solution lies in the use of a signal processing technique known as pulse compression, which consists of introducing an internal modulation within the pulse width, decoupling range and resolution.

Estimación de biomasa forestal mediante el uso de imágenes radar.

La importancia de la Biomasa a nivel mundial, ha llevado a que más de 130 países celebren el protocolo de Kioto sobre el cambio climático dictaminando como objetivo la reducción de las emisiones de seis gases de efecto invernadero y tres gases industriales fluorados, así como la incorporación de la fijación del CO2 como un objetivo dentro de los criterios de gestión de bosques. Entre las metodologías no destructivas para estimación de biomasa, aquí desarrolladas se describen tres técnicas que varios autores han propuesto para calcular los valores de biomasa y carbono, tal como el uso de ecuaciones alométricas por medio de la medición de variables dasométricas como el DAP, la aplicación de la teoría de huecos (v.g. DHP, TRAC), y la obtención de biomasa mediante información radar. Las imágenes radar proporcionan una clara ventaja al poder ser adquiridas en cualquier momento del día e independientemente de las condiciones climatológicas. Se han adquirido dos imágenes de sensores diferentes, tal como ALOSPALSAR que trabaja en la banda L y RADARSAT-2 que trabaja en la banda C, se aplica la metodología descrita por Saatchi et al. (2007), desarrollando los algoritmos semiempíricos propuestos para la estimación de biomasa del fuste (Ws) y biomasa de la copa (Wc), obteniendo los coeficientes a partir de información adquirida en campo. ABSTRACT The importance of biomass worldwide has led to more than 130 countries to celebrate the Kyoto Protocol, aimed at reducing emissions of six greenhouse gases and three fluorinated industrial gases, and the incorporation of the fixation of CO2 as an objective within forest management criteria. Among the non-destructive methods for estimating biomass, three techniques were developed. These have been described by some authors, as the use of allometric equations by measuring forest variables such as the DAP, the application of the Gap Theory (e.g. DHP, TRAC), as well as deriving biomass by radar information. The radar images provide a clear advantage since they can be gathered at any time of the day regardless of the weather conditions. For this purpose, two radar products have acquired from different sensors, such as ALOSPALSAR operating on L frequency band and RADARSAT-2 operating on C frequency band. The methodology applied in this work is described in Saatchi et al. (2007), that develop semiempirical algorithms for estimating stem biomass (Ws) and crown biomass (Wc). The corresponding coefficients are determined by means of regression procedures using field information derived from allometric and radiation measurements.

Low-Cost Radar-Based Target Identification Prototype using an Expert System

Smart and green cities are hot topics in current research because people are becoming more conscious about their impact on the environment and the sustainability of their cities as the population increases. Many researchers are searching for mechanisms that can reduce power consumption and pollution in the city environment. This paper addresses the issue of public lighting and how it can be improved in order to achieve a more energy efficient city. This work is focused on making the process of turning the streetlights on and off more intelligent so that they consume less power and cause less light pollution. The proposed solution is comprised of a radar device and an expert system implemented on a low-cost platform based on a DSP. By analyzing the radar echo in both the frequency and time domains, the system is able to detect and identify objects moving in front of it. This information is used to decide whether or not the streetlight should be turned on. Experimental results show that the proposed system can provide hit rates over 80%, promising a good performance. In addition, the proposed solution could be useful in kind of other applications such as intelligent security and surveillance systems and home automation.

Diseño y simulación de detectores de señales radar utilizando técnicas tiempo-frecuencia

El objetivo de este trabajo fin de grado (TFG) consiste en estudiar algunas técnicas de análisis tiempo-frecuencia y aplicarlas a la detección de señales radar. Estas técnicas se incorporan en los actuales equipos de guerra electrónica radar, tales como los interceptadores digitales. La principal motivación de estos equipos consiste en detectar y localizar las fuentes radiantes enemigas e intentar obtener cierta información de las señales interceptadas, tal como, la dirección de llegada (DOA, Direction Of Arrival), el tiempo de llegada (TOA, Time Of Arrival), amplitud de pulso (PA, Pulse Amplitude), anchura de pulso (PW, Pulse Width), frecuencia instantánea (IF, Instantaneous Frequency) o modulación intrapulso. Se comenzará con un estudio detallado de la Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT),dado su carácter lineal es la técnica más explotada actualmente. Este algoritmo presenta una mala resolución conjunta tiempo-frecuencia. Este hecho provoca el estudio complementario de una segunda técnica de análisis basada en la distribución de Wigner-Ville (WVD). Mediante este método se logra una resolución optima tiempo-frecuencia. A cambio, se obtienen términos cruzados indeseados debido a su carácter cuadrático. Uno de los objetivos de este TFG reside en calcular la sensibilidad de los sistemas de detección analizados a partir de las técnicas tiempo-frecuencia. Se hará uso del método de Monte Carlo para estimar ciertos parámetros estadísticos del sistema tales como la probabilidad de falsa alarma y de detección. Así mismo, se llevará a cabo el estudio completo de un receptor digital de guerra electrónica a fin de comprender el funcionamiento de todos los subsistemas que componen el conjunto (STFT/WVD, medidor instantáneo de frecuencias, procesamiento no coherente y generación de descriptores de pulso). Por último, se analizará su comportamiento frente a diferentes señales Radar (FM-lineal, BPSK, chirp o Barker). Se utilizará para ello la herramienta Matlab.

Aplicación práctica transceptor BGT24MTR11 : radar Doppler

En los últimos tiempos, los radares han dejado de ser instrumentos utilizados únicamente en aviación, defensa y detección de velocidad. El avance de la tecnología de radiofrecuencia ha permitido la reducción de coste, tamaño y consumo de los componentes radar. Esto ha permitido que cada sea más frecuente el uso del radar en elementos de nuestra vida cotidiana tales como la automoción, la seguridad, la medida de líquidos… Este proyecto se basa en uno de estos nuevos componentes de bajo coste y pequeño tamaño, el transceptor BGT24MTR11. El BGTR24MTR11 integra transmisor, VCO y receptor, los elementos principales para la creación de un radar Doppler en la banda de frecuencia ISM 24-24,25 GHz. A partir de la placa de evaluación de ese transceptor, se aborda el diseño de un prototipo/demostrador de radar Doppler CW en la banda de 24 GHz. Para la generación de frecuencia se utiliza la placa de evaluación del PLL HMC702 y se ha diseñado un PCB a medida cuyas funciones son las de alimentación, programación y amplificación de las señales recibidas por el prototipo. Por último, se comprueba el correcto funcionamiento del prototipo y se verifica su funcionamiento mediante la simulación de dos escenarios de prueba. ABSTRACT. In the recent times, radar systems have changed of being tools used only in aviation, defence and speed detection. Radiofrequency technology improvements have allowed a cost, size and power consumption of the radar components. This is the reason because each time is more frequent the use of radar in elements of our daily life such as automotive, security, liquid measurements… This Project is base don one of this low power and size components, the MMIC transceptor BGT24MTR11. This transceptor integrates the main components needed to make a Doppler radar in the ISM Band (24-24 GHz), the transmitter, the receiver with the low noise amplifier and the VCO. Using the evaluation board of this transceptor, this Project approach the design of a CW Doppler radar prototype/demonstrator in the frequency band of 24 GHz. The frequency generation is based on the use of the HMC702 PLL evaluation board. Moreover, it has been designed a custom PCB whose funcionts are the power supply, programation and amplification of the signals received by the prototype. At the end, the correct operation of the prototype is verified and it is tested simulating two different test scenarios.