Midday measurements of leaf water potential and stomatal conductance are highly correlated with daily water use of Thompson Seedless grapevines

A study was conducted to determine the relationship between midday measurements of vine water status and daily water use of grapevines measured with a weighing lysimeter. Water applications to the vines were terminated on August 24th for 9 days and again on September 14th for 22 days. Daily water use of the vines in the lysimeter (ETLYS) was approximately 40 L vine−1 (5.3 mm) prior to turning the pump off, and it decreased to 22.3 L vine−1 by September 2nd. Pre-dawn leaf water potential (ΨPD) and midday Ψl on August 24th were −0.075 and −0.76 MPa, respectively, with midday Ψl decreasing to −1.28 MPa on September 2nd. Leaf g s decreased from ~500 to ~200 mmol m−2 s−1 during the two dry-down periods. Midday measurements of g s and Ψl were significantly correlated with one another (r = 0.96) and both with ETLYS/ETo (r = ~0.9). The decreases in Ψl, g s, and ETLYS/ETo in this study were also a linear function of the decrease in volumetric soil water content. The results indicate that even modest water stress can greatly reduce grapevine water use and that short-term measures of vine water status taken at midday are a reflection of daily grapevine water use

Effects of water potential on spore germination and viability of Fusarium species

Germination of macroconidia and/or microconidia of 24 strains of Fusarium solani, F. chlamydosporum, F. culmorum, F. equiseti, F. verticillioides, F. sambucinum, F. oxysporum and F. proliferatum isolated from fluvial channels and sea beds of the south-eastern coast of Spain, and three control strains (F. oxysporum isolated from affected cultures) was studied in distilled water in response to a range of water potentials adjusted with NaCI. (0, -13.79, -41.79, -70.37, -99.56 and -144.54 bars). The vialibility (UFC/ml) of suspension was also tested in three time periods (0,24 and 48h). Conidia always germinated in distilled water. The pattern of conidial germination obseved of F. verticillioides, F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum, F. chlamydosporum and F. culmorum was similar. A great diminution of spore germination was found in -13.79 bars solutions. Spore germination percentage for F. solani isolates was maximal at 48 h. and -13.79 bars with 21.33% spore germination, 16% higher than germination in distilled water. F. equiseti shows the maximum germination percentage in -144.54 bars solution in 24 h time with 12.36% germination. These results did not agree with those obtained in the viability test where maximum germination was found in distilled water. The viability analysis showed the great capacity of F. verticilloides strains to form viable colonies, even in such extreme conditions as -144,54 bars after 24 h F. proliferatum colony formation was prevented in the range of -70.37 bars. These results show the clear affectation of water potential to conidia germination of Fusaria. The ability of certain species of Fusarium to develop a saprophytic life in the salt water of the Mediterraneam Sea could be certain. Successful germination, even under high salty media conditions, suggests taht Fusarium spp. could have a competitive advantage over other soil fungi in crops irrigated with saline water. In the specific case of F. solani, water potential of -13.79 bars affected germination positively. It could indicate that F. solani has an special physiological mechanism of survival in low water potential environments.

Short-term effects of four tillage practices on soil physical properties, soil water potential, and maize yield

The area cultivated using conservation tillage has recently increased in central Spain. However, soil compaction and water retention with conservation tillage still remains a genuine concern for landowners in this region be- cause of its potential effect on the crop growth and yield. The aim of this research is to determine the short- term influences of four tillage treatments on soil physical properties. In the experiment, bulk density, cone index, soil water potential, soil temperature and maize (Zea mays L.) productivity have been measured. A field experiment was established in spring of 2013 on a loamy soil. The experiment compared four tillage methods (zero tillage, ZT; reservoir tillage, RT; minimum tillage, MT; and conventional tillage, CT). Soil bulk density and soil cone index were measured during maize growing season and at harvesting time. Furthermore, the soil water potential was monitored by using a wireless sensors network with sensors at 20 and 40 cm depths. Also, soil temperatures were registered at depths of 5 and 12 cm. Results indicated that there were significant differ- ences between soil bulk density and cone index of ZT method and those of RT, MT, and CT, during the growing season; although, this difference was not significant at the time of harvesting in some soil layers. Overall, in most soil layers, tillage practice affected bulk density and cone index in the order: ZT N RT N MT N CT. Regardless oftheentireobservationperiod,results exhibited that soils under ZT and RT treatments usually resulted in higher water potential and lower soil temperature than the other two treatments at both soil depths. In addition, clear differences in maize grain yield were observed between ZT and CT treatments, with a grain yield (up to 15.4%) increase with the CT treatment. On the other hand, no significant differences among (RT, MT, and CT) on maizeyieldwerefound.Inconclusion,the impact of soil compaction increase and soil temperature decrease,pro- duced by ZT treatment is a potential reason for maize yield reduction in this tillage method. We found that RT could be certainly a viable option for farmers incentral Spain,particularly when switching to conservation tillage from conventional tillage. This technique showed a moderate and positive effect on soil physical properties and increased maize yields compared to ZT and MT, and provides an opportunity to stabilize maize yields compared to CT.

Water stress thresholds for regulated deficit irrigation in pistachio trees

The response of "Kerman" pistachio trees budded on three different rootstocks (Pistacia terebinthus, Pista-cia atlantica and Pistacia integerrima) to regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) in shallow soils was studied for3 years. The trees were either fully irrigated (C treatment) or subjected to deficit irrigation during Stage IIof fruit growth with two water stress thresholds (T1 and T2). The irrigation scheduling for fully-irrigatedtrees and water-stressed trees was managed by means of midday stem water potential (?stem) measure-ments. The use of direct measurements of the water status allowed estimating accurately the irrigationrequirements for pistachio trees, with water reductions ranging from 46 to 205 mm in fully-irrigatedtrees. The combination of the ?stemuse and the RDI regime saved 43?70% in T1 and 48?73% in T2 ofwater compared to the calculated crop evapotranspiration (ETc) for fully irrigated treatment (C).Deficit irrigation during Stage II significantly reduced the vegetative growth of the trees. Yield and fruitquality were not affected by any irrigation regime, except during the first year of the study. Thus, theresults indicate that full irrigation scheduling and RDI can be achieved successfully using ?stemtool onpistachio trees growing in shallow soils. A ?stemthreshold of ?1.5 MPa during stage II (T1) was suggestedfor RDI scheduling, as it did not reduce the yield or the production value. However a ?stemthresholdof ?2.0 MPa (T2) resulted in a significant reduction and an extensive delay in the recovery of stomatalconductance (gl),with negative effects on long-term pistachio production.P. integerrima showed a weaker capacity of adaptation to the study conditions compared to P. atlanticaand P. terebinthus, having a tendency to get more stressed and to produce a lower quality crop.

Respuesta fisiológica y agronómica del olivar en seto (cv. Arbequina) a la orientación de filas y al ancho de calle: relación entre la producción y calidad del aceite y la radiación interceptada

En las últimas dos décadas, los productores han plantado olivares en seto para lograr la mecanización de la poda y en especial de la cosecha, reducir los costes de mano de obra y permitir intervenciones de manejo rápidas y oportunas. Los olivares se desarrollaron en ausencia del conocimiento científico, sobre el diseño óptimo de la estructura de la copa, necesario para incrementar la producción y calidad del aceite. En contraste, con los árboles muy espaciados y distribuidos uniformemente de las plantaciones tradicionales, en el olivar en seto hay una marcada variabilidad espacial y temporal de la radiación disponible en función del diseño de la plantación. Así, conocer la respuesta fisiológica y productiva del olivo a la radiación resulta fundamental en el olivar en seto. La orientación de las filas y el ancho de calle son aspectos que se deciden en el diseño de las plantaciones en seto. Ambos aspectos modifican la radiación interceptada por la canopia y, por lo tanto, pueden incidir en la productividad y calidad del aceite. Una vez realizada la plantación no pueden ser modificados, y así las ventajas o desventajas permanecerán fijas durante toda la vida productiva del olivar. A pesar de esto, el impacto de la orientación de las filas y el ancho de calle han recibido poca atención en olivos y en la mayoría de los frutales conducidos en seto. Por todo ello, los objetivos principales de esta tesis fueron, (i) evaluar el efecto de la orientación del seto y del ancho de calle, sobre la productividad y calidad del aceite, (ii) evaluar un modelo que estime la radiación dentro de la canopia. Este modelo permitirá cuantificar las relaciones entre la radiación y los componentes del rendimiento y calidad del aceite de olivares en setos con un amplio rango de estructuras y (iii) conocer la variabilidad en las características de las hojas (morfológicas y fisiológicas) y de los tejidos del fruto (tamaño y composición) en diferentes posiciones de la copa de los setos. Para ello, se dispuso de 3 ensayos de olivar en seto (cv. Arbequina) implantados en 2008 en el municipio de La Puebla de Montalbán, Toledo. La primera cosecha fue en 2010 y a partir del 2012 los setos formaron una copa continua. A partir de ese año, los setos se mantuvieron mediante poda, con similar ancho (~1 m) y altura (~2,5 m), acordes a las dimensiones de la cosechadora vendimiadora. En los años 2012 y 2013 se estudió en profundidad la respuesta de las plantas de estos ensayos. En el ensayo 1, los setos fueron plantados con cuatro orientaciones de filas: N–S, NE–SO, NO–SE y E–O y el mismo ancho de calle (4 m). En los otros dos ensayos, los setos fueron plantados con tres anchos de calle (5,0, 4,0 y 2,5 m), y con filas orientadas N–S (ensayo 2) y E–O (ensayo 3). La respuesta de la orientación de las filas se evaluó a nivel de seto y de estratos del seto (alturas y caras), a través de mediciones del crecimiento de brotes, componentes reproductivos, características y temperatura del fruto, estado hídrico del suelo y de las plantas, fotosíntesis neta de las hojas y contenido de ácidos grasos. Los setos orientados NE–SO (2,7 t/ha) lograron la mayor producción de aceite, que fue significativamente más alta que la de los setos E–O (2,3 t/ha). La producción de aceite de los setos E–O no se diferenció estadísticamente de los setos N–S (2,5 t/ha). Las diferencias productivas entre orientaciones fueron explicadas por el número de frutos en cosecha, a su vez la variación en el número de frutos estuvo asociada al efecto de la orientación de las filas sobre el número de yemas desarrolladas y el porcentaje de inflorescencias fértiles. Las hojas en las caras iluminadas de los setos NE–SO y N–S presentaron mayor tasa fotosintética a la mañana (~10.0 h) que los setos E–O, en el año 2012, pero no en 2013. La orientación de las filas no tuvo un efecto significativo en el contenido de ácidos grasos de los aceites extraídos, esto ocurrió a pesar de variaciones en la temperatura interna de los frutos (3 °C) y de la radiación (40%) entre las distintas caras de los setos. La orientación del seto afectó significativamente al contenido relativo de agua del suelo, donde setos E–O presentaron valores más altos (12%) que setos N–S durante el verano y otoño. Sin embargo, el potencial hídrico de tallo fue similar entre orientaciones. En los ensayos 2 y 3, se evaluó el efecto que produce, a nivel de seto y de estratos (caras y alturas), reducir el ancho de calle de 5,0 a 4,0 y 2,5 m, en un seto orientado N–S y otro E–O, respectivamente. La relación entre altura/ancho de calle libre aumentó 0,6 a 0,8 y 1,6, al reducir 5,0, 4,0 y 2,5 m el ancho de calle, mientras la longitud de seto y el volumen de copa por hectárea incrementó 100% al reducir de 5,0 a 2,5 m, el ancho de calle. En los setos orientados N–S, la producción de aceite por ha acumulada en 4 campañas, incrementó significativamente un 52 %, al reducir de 5,0 a 2,5 m el ancho de calle. Los setos N–S con calle más estrecha (2,5 m) tuvieron un 19% menos frutos que los setos con calle más ancha (5,0 m) y a su vez el 60% de los mismos se localizaron los estratos altos de la canopia de los setos con calles estrecha en comparación al 40% en setos con calle de 5,0 m. En los estratos más bajos de los setos con calles de 2,5m hubo menor crecimiento de los brotes y los frutos tuvieron menor peso seco, contenido de aceite y madurez, que los frutos en los estratos bajos de los setos a 5,0 m. Los componentes del rendimiento y características de los frutos (agua y madurez) fueron similares entre la caras E y O, independientemente del ancho de calle. En los setos orientados E–O, la producción de aceite por ha acumulada en 4 campañas, no respondió significativamente al ancho de calle, debido a una disminución significativa en el número de frutos y producción de aceite por m de seto, al reducir de 5,0 a 2,5 m, el ancho de calle. En los setos orientados E–O, con calles de 5,0 m, los frutos presentaron similar peso seco, contenido de aceite y agua, en las caras S y N, sin embargo, cuando la calle fue reducida a 2,5, los frutos de la cara S fueron más pesado y maduros que en la cara N. Independientemente del ancho de calle y de la orientación del seto, el aceite presentó mayor contenido de ácidos palmitoleico, palmítico, esteárico y linoleico en los frutos del estrato más alto de la canopia disminuyendo hacia la base. En contraste, el contenido de ácido oleico aumentó desde el estrato más alto hacia la base de los setos. Las diferencias en el contenido de ácidos grasos entre la parte alta y baja de los setos, incrementó al reducir el ancho de calle en los setos N–S, pero no en los E-O. En conclusión, en olivares en seto, reducir el ancho de calle permite incrementar la producción de aceite, en setos orientados N–S, pero no en E–O. Un modelo que estima la cantidad y distribución de la radiación en toda la copa del seto, fue utilizado para estimar la radiación interceptada en distintos estratos del seto. El modelo requiere un valor del coeficiente de extinción (k) para estimar la transmisión de radiación a través de la copa, el cual fue obtenido experimentalmente (k=1,2). Utilizando los datos del ensayo 1, un único modelo lineal relacionó el peso seco y el rendimiento graso de setos con la radiación interceptada por los distintos estratos de setos con cuatro orientaciones de filas. La densidad de frutos fue también relacionada con la radiación, pero más débilmente. En los setos orientados N–S, plantados con tres anchos de calles, (ensayo 2) el contenido de ácidos palmitoleico y linoleico del aceite incrementó linealmente con el incremento de la radiación interceptada, mientras el contenido ácido oleico disminuyó linealmente con el incremento de la radiación. El contenido de ácidos grasos del aceite no estuvo relacionado con la radiación interceptada en setos orientados E–O (Ensayo 3). En los setos N–S y E–O, plantados con anchos de calle de 2,5 m, se estudiaron las interacciones entre la radiación y características de las hojas, número de fruto, tamaño y composición de los frutos a nivel de órgano, tejido y células. Independientemente de la orientación del seto, el área y el contenido de clorofila de las hojas incrementaron significativamente en los estratos más bajos de los setos. Mientras, las hojas de los estratos medios del seto presentaron mayor capacidad fotosintética que en los estratos bajos y alto de los setos. Los estratos del seto que interceptaron más radiación produjeron frutos con mayor tamaño y contenido de aceite en el mesocarpo, sin efectos sobre el tamaño y composición del endocarpo. A nivel celular, los frutos expuestos a mayor nivel de radiación desarrollaron en el mesocarpo células de mayor tamaño en comparación a frutos menos expuestos, mientras el número de células no fue afectado. Adicionalmente, el número y tamaño de las células estuvo relacionado con la composición del mesocarpo en términos de aceite, agua y peso seco menos aceite. Esta tesis, contribuye, desde una perspectiva integral del cultivo del olivo, a cuantificar el impacto de la orientación y ancho de calle sobre la producción y calidad del aceite en olivares conducidos en setos. El análisis y discusión de la relación entre la radiación y los componentes del rendimiento y calidad del aceite, puede ayudar a diseñar plantaciones en seto con dimensiones óptimas para la intercepción de la radiación. ABSTRACT In the last two decades, olive hedgerow system has been established by commercial growers to allow continuous mechanized pruning and especially harvest, reduce costs of manual labour and allow more rapid and timely management interventions. The adoption of hedgerow was done in the absence of adequate scientific knowledge of the impact of this orchard structure and associated mechanization on tree response, yield and quality, after centuries in low-density orchards and open-formed trees. The row orientation and width alley are fundamental aspects in the hedgerow design and have been scarcely studied in olive. Both aspects modify the radiation intercepted by the canopy, and consequently the productivity and oil quality, and once defined in orchard planting cannot be changed, so advantages and disadvantages remain fixed for the lifespan of the orchard. The main objectives of this thesis were to (i) evaluate the impact of the row orientation and width alley on productivity and oil quality by the measurements of profile of the determining processes of shoot growth, fruit temperature, yield components and fruit and oil characteristics on opposite sides of olive hedgerows. Additionally, the effect of row orientation on the plant water status was also evaluated; (ii) evaluate a mathematical model for estimating the radiation within the canopy and quantify the relationships between the radiation estimated and yield components and oil quality in olive hedgerows under wide range of structures and; (iii) determine the variability in the characteristics of the leaves (morphological and physiological) and fruit tissues (size and composition) in different positions of the hedgerows canopy. Three plots of olive hedgerows (cv. Arbequina) planted in 2008 in La Puebla de Montalbán, Toledo were evaluated during the 2012 and 2013 seasons. The hedgerows were maintained by lateral pruning and topping with the same width (1 m) and height (2.5 m) compatible with the intended harvester. In a plot (experiment 1), the hedgerows were planted with the same width alley (4 m) and four row orientations: N–S, NE–SW, NW–SE and E–W. Other two plots (Experiments 2 and 3) separated by approximately 100 m were planted with N–S and E–O oriented rows and three alley widths in each orientation: 5.0, 4.0 and 2.5 m. In the exp. 1, maximum fruit yield were achieved by NE–SW and NW–SW (15.7 t/ha). Of these, NE–SW achieved the highest oil yield (2.7 t/ha). There were no differences in fruit or oil yield between N–S (2.5 t oil/ha) and E–W (2.3 t oil/ha) orientations. Fruit number was the most important component to explain these differences, by previous influence on number of bud developed and percentage of fertile inflorescences. Fruit maturity and oil quality on both sides of the hedgerows were not affected by row orientation. This occurred despite significant variations in the internal fruit temperature, which was closely related to the irradiance received by the canopy and the time of day. Additionally, row orientation significantly affected the relative water content of the soil, where E–W oriented hedgerows showed consistently higher values than N–S during summer-autumn season. The stem water potential at midday, however, was similar between orientations, revealing possible lower water consumption of E–W than N–S oriented hedgerows. In the exp. 2, regardless of row orientation, reduction of row spacing from 5.0 to 4.0 and 2.5 m increases the ratio of canopy depth to free alley width (Al/An) from 0.6 to 0.8 and 1.6, respectively, and ads 25 and 100 % more hedgerow length per ha. In N–S oriented hedgerows, oil production per ha increased significantly by 14 and 52 % in 4.0 m and 2.5 m relative to 5.0 m row spacing, the effect being proportionally less than the increase in hedgerow length per ha. Hedgerows spaced 2.5 m with Al/An = 1.6 produced relatively fewer fruits per unit length than did wider spacings and were preferentially distributed in upper layers. Fruits located at the bottom of the canopy were smaller, with lower oil content and were less mature. In E–W oriented hedgerows, oil production per ha did not respond significantly to row spacing, despite the doubling of row length from the 5.0 to the 2.5 m row spacing. The explanation was found in fewer fruit per unit length of hedgerow and smaller oil content at 2.5 m than 5.0 m row spacing, averaged over the experimental period. In E–W hedgerows spaced at 5.0 m with Al/An = 0.6, the vertical profiles of fruit characteristics (mass, oil and water contents, and maturity) were similar between opposing sides, but at 4.0 m (Al/An= 0.8) and 2.5 m (Al/An=1.6) spacings, fruits on the S side were heavier and more mature than on N side. The oil extracted from fruits harvested at different heights of N–S and E–W oriented hedgerows showed higher palmitoleic, palmitic, stearic and linoleic contents at the canopy top decreasing toward base. The oleic content was reverse, increased from top to base. In N–S hedgerows, vertical gradients increased by reducing the alley width, but not in the E–W oriented hedgerows. The simulation of internal canopy irradiance was related in a single relationship (R2 = 0.63) to the vertical profiles of fruit weight and oil content of olive hedgerows with wide range of structures. The density of fruits was also associated with the irradiance but more weakly (R2 = 0.27), and revealed a more complex response involving changes in the vegetative structure by canopy management (topping) and the effect of radiation on the previous sequence that defines the number of fruits. The vertical profiles of oil quality traits were closely associated to canopy irradiance, but only when the N–S oriented hedgerows were considered. The contents of palmitoleic and linoleic acid in the oil increased linearly when intercepted irradiance increased from 9 to 19 mol PAR/m2. In contrast, oleic content decreased linearly in this irradiance range. Additionally, we advanced knowledge regarding the interactions among irradiance and leaf, fruit number, size and composition at organ-, tissue- and cellular- levels. The irradiance received at different positions in the canopy strongly affected the leaf area and chlorophyll content, and mesocarp size and composition (water and oil), without effects on endocarp size and composition. At the cellular level, light-exposed fruit developed larger mesocarp cells than shaded fruits, but cell number was not affected. Our results indicate that cell number and size are related to mesocarp composition in term of oil, water, and dry weight menus oil, although the specific manner in which they interact remains to be determined. This research contributes from an integral perspective of olive growing to quantify the impact of row orientation and width alley on productivity and oil quality in hedgerows systems. The analysis and discussion of the relationships between radiation and yield components and oil quality can help understand the impact of design olive hedgerows in general and in a wide range of environmental conditions.

Quality attributes of pistachio nuts as affected by rootstocks and deficit irrigation

BACKGROUND: In this work, the influence of two regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) treatments and three different rootstocks on the quality of pistachios was evaluated by analyzing different parameters: morphological analysis, physicochemical analysis and sensory analysis. RESULTS: The results obtained in terms of the choice of rootstock revealed that Pistacia atlantica had increased production yields, nut weight, mineral content, higher intensities of characteristic sensory attributes and a higher degree of consumer satisfaction, than the other rootstocks studied. Moreover, the results established that the application of RDI on pistachio cultivation had no significant influence on production yield, weight, size, colour, water activity or mineral composition. Furthermore, T1 treatment (stem water potential?

Effect of row orientation on soil water content and vine water status on a Cabernet franc vineyard in Madrid, spain

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of row orien¬tation on vine and soil water status in an irrigated vineyard. The trial was developed during 2006, 2007 and 2008, in the South East region of Madrid (Spain) on 5-year old Cabernet franc grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) grafted onto 140Ru. Plant spacing was 2.5 m x 1.5 m and vines were trained to a VSP. Four orientations were stu¬died: North-South (N-S), East-West (E-W), Northeast-Southwest (N+45) and North-South +20o (N+20). Irrigation (0.4•ET0) started when shoot growth stopped. Soil water availability was measured using a TDR technique with forty buried probes. Row orientation did not have any effect on water consumption in the vineyard. At maturity, leaf water potential was measured at predawn, early mor¬ning, midday and 14:00 solar time, on both canopy sides - sun and shade – ; the early morning measurement was the one that better differentiated treatments. Leaf water potential was a good indica¬tor of plant water status. Differences between (N-S and E-W) and (N+20 and N+45) treatments were obtained both on sun and shade canopy sides, N+20 and N+45 having lower leaf water potentials then drier leaves. The water stress integral shows that N-S and E-W reach the end of maturation with a greater level of hydration than N+45 and N+20. As a whole, N+45 and N+20 orientations, without affecting too much the soil available water content, induce regularly more water stress to the vine at some periods, probably due to an higher sunlight interception in early morning which makes water limitation for the vine more early and thus more severe during the day.

The interactive effects of temperature and osmotic potential on the growth of marines isolates of Fusarium solani

The mycelial growth of 18 Fusarium solani strains isolated from sea beds of the south-eastern coast of Spain was tested on potato-dextrose agar adjusted to different osmotic potentials with either KCl or NACl (-1.50 to -144.54 bars) in 10ºC intervals ranging from 15 to 35ºC. Fungal growth was determined by measuring colony diameter after 4 days incubation. Mycelial growth was maximal at 25ºC. The quantity and frequency pattern of mycelial growth of F. solani differ significantly at 15 and 25ºC, with maximal occurring at the highest water potential tested (-1.50 bars); and at 35ºC, with a maximal mycelial growth at -13.79 bars. The effect of water potential was independent of salt composition. The general growth pattern of F. solani showed declining growth at potentials below -41.79 bars. Fungal growth at 35ºC was always higher than that growth at 15ºC, of all the water potentials tested. Significant differences observed in the response of mycelia to water potential and temperature as main and interactive effects. The viability of cultures was increasingly inhibited as the water potential dropped, but some growth was still observed at -99.56 bars. These findings could indicate that marine strains of F. solani have a physiological mechanism that permits survival in environments with low water potential. The observed differences in viability and the magnitude growth could indicate that the biological factors governing potential and actual growth are affected by osmotic potential in different ways.

The Interactive Effects of Temperature and Osmotic Potential on the Growth of Aquatic Isolates of Fusarium culmorum.

The mycelial growth of 10 Fusarium culmorum strains isolated from water of the Andarax riverbed in the provinces of Granada and Almeria in southeastern Spain was tested on potato-dextroseagar adjusted to different osmotic potentials with either KCl or NaCl (−1.50 to−144.54 bars) at 10◦C intervals ranging from15◦ to 35◦C. Fungal growth was determined by measuring colony diameter after 4 d of incubation. Mycelial growth was maximal at 25◦C. The quantity and capacity of mycelial growth of F. culmorum were similar at 15 and 25◦C, with maximal growth occurring at −13.79 bars water potential and a lack of growth at 35◦C. The effect of water potential was independent of salt composition. The general growth pattern of Fusarium culmorum growth declined at potentials below −13.79 bars. Fungal growth at 25◦C was always greater than growth at 15◦C, at all of the water potentials tested. Significant differences were observed in the response ofmycelia to water potential and temperature as main and interactive effects. The number of isolates that showed growth was increasingly inhibited as the water potential dropped, but some growth was still observable at −99.56 bars. These findings could indicate that F. culmorum strains isolated from water have a physiological mechanism that permits survival in environments with low water potential. Propagules of Fusarium culmorum are transported long distances by river water, which could explain the severity of diseases caused by F.culmorum on cereal plants irrigated with river water and its interaction under hydric stress ormoderate soil salinity. The observed differences in growth magnitude and capacity could indicate that the biological factors governing potential and actual growth are affected by osmotic potential in different ways.

Effect of solute and matric potential on growth rate of fungal species isolated from cheese

The effect of water potential ( J w ) on the growth of 15 fungal species isolated from cheeses was analysed. The species, identified mainly by analysis of DNA sequences, belonged to genera Penicillium , Geotrichum , Mucor , Aspergillus , Microascus and Talaromyces . Particularly, the effect of matric potential ( J m ), and ionic (NaCl) and non-ionic (glycerol) solute potentials ( J s ) on growth rate was studied. The response of strains was highly dependent on the type of J w . For J s , clear profiles for optimal, permissive and marginal conditions for growth were obtained, and differences in growth rate were achieved comparing NaCl and glycerol for most of the species. Conversely, a sustained growth was obtained for J m in all the strains, with the exception of Aspergillus pseudoglaucus , whose growth increased proportionally to the level of water stress. Our results might help to understand the impact of environmental factors on the ecophysiology and dynamics of fungal populations associated to cheeses.

Wettability, polarity and water absorption of Quercus ilex leaves: effect of leaf side and age

Plant trichomes play important protective functions and may have a major influence on leaf surface wettability. With the aim of gaining insight into trichome structure, composition and function in relation to water-plant surface interactions, we analyzed the adaxial and abaxial leaf surface of Quercus ilex L. (holm oak) as model. By measuring the leaf water potential 24 h after the deposition of water drops on to abaxial and adaxial surfaces, evidence for water penetration through the upper leaf side was gained in young and mature leaves. The structure and chemical composition of the abaxial (always present) and adaxial (occurring only in young leaves) trichomes were analyzed by various microscopic and analytical procedures. The adaxial surfaces were wettable and had a high degree of water drop adhesion in contrast to the highly unwettable and water repellent abaxial holm oak leaf sides. The surface free energy, polarity and solubility parameter decreased with leaf age, with generally higher values determined for the abaxial sides. All holm oak leaf trichomes were covered with a cuticle. The abaxial trichomes were composed of 8% soluble waxes, 49% cutin, and 43% polysaccharides. For the adaxial side, it is concluded that trichomes and the scars after trichome shedding contribute to water uptake, while the abaxial leaf side is highly hydrophobic due to its high degree of pubescence and different trichome structure, composition and density. Results are interpreted in terms of water-plant surface interactions, plant surface physical-chemistry, and plant ecophysiology.

Effect of solute and matric potential on growth rate of fungal species isolated from cheese

The effect of water potential ( J w ) on the growth of 15 fungal species isolated from cheeses was analysed. The species, identi fi ed mainly by analysis of DNA sequences, belonged to genera Penicillium, Geotrichum, Mucor , Aspergillus , Microascus and Talaromyces . Particularly, the effect of matric potential ( J m ), and ionic (NaCl) and non-ionic (glycerol) solute potentials ( J s ) on growth rate was studied. The response of strains was highly dependent on the type of J w . For J s, clear profiles for optimal, permissive and marginal conditions for growth were obtained, and differences in growth rate were achieved comparing NaCl and glycerol for most of the species. Conversely, a sustained growth was obtained for J m in all the strains, with the exception of Aspergillus pseudoglaucus, whose growth increased proportionally to the level of water stress. Our results might help to understand the impact of environmental factors on the ecophysiology and dynamics of fungal populations associated to cheeses.

Functional response of Ulmus minor Mill. to drought, flooding and dutch elm disease

Ulmus minor es una especie arbórea originaria de Europa cuyas poblaciones han sido diezmadas por el hongo patógeno causante de la enfermedad de la grafiosis. La conservación de los olmos exige plantearse su propagación a través de plantaciones y conocer mejor su ecología y biología. Ulmus minor es un árbol de ribera, pero frecuentemente se encuentra alejado del cauce de arroyos y ríos, donde la capa freática sufre fuertes oscilaciones. Por ello, nuestra hipótesis general es que esta especie es moderadamente resistente tanto a la inundación como a la sequía. El principal objetivo de esta tesis doctoral es entender desde un punto de vista funcional la respuesta de U. minor a la inundación, la sequía y la infección por O. novo-ulmi; los factores que posiblemente más influyen en la distribución actual de U. minor. Con este objetivo se persigue dar continuidad a los esfuerzos de conservación de esta especie que desde hace años se dedican en varios centros de investigación a nivel mundial, ya que, entender mejor los mecanismos que contribuyen a la resistencia de U. minor ante la inoculación con O. novo-ulmi y factores de estrés abiótico ayudará en la selección y propagación de genotipos resistentes a la grafiosis. Se han planteado tres experimentos en este sentido. Primero, se ha comparado la tolerancia de brinzales de U. minor y U. laevis – otro olmo ibérico – a una inmersión controlada con el fin de evaluar su tolerancia a la inundación y comprender los mecanismos de aclimatación. Segundo, se ha comparado la tolerancia de brinzales de U. minor y Quercus ilex – una especie típica de ambientes Mediterránea secos – a la falta de agua en el suelo con el fin de evaluar el grado de tolerancia y los mecanismos de aclimatación a la sequía. El hecho de comparar dos especies contrastadas responde al interés en entender mejor cuales son los procesos que conducen a la muerte de una planta en condiciones de sequía – asunto sobre el que hay una interesante discusión desde hace algunos años. En tercer lugar, con el fin de entender mejor la resistencia de algunos genotipos de U. minor a la grafiosis, se han estudiado las diferencias fisiológicas y químicas constitutivas e inducidas por O. novo-ulmi entre clones de U. minor seleccionados a priori por su variable grado de resistencia a esta enfermedad. En el primer experimento se observó que los brinzales de U. minor sobrevivieron 60 días inmersos en una piscina con agua no estancada hasta una altura de 2-3 cm por encima del cuello de la raíz. A los 60 días, los brinzales de U. laevis se sacaron de la piscina y, a lo largo de las siguientes semanas, fueron capaces de recuperar las funciones fisiológicas que habían sido alteradas anteriormente. La conductividad hidráulica de las raíces y la tasa de asimilación de CO2 neta disminuyeron en ambas especies. Por el contrario, la tasa de respiración de hojas, tallos y raíces aumentó en las primeras semanas de la inundación, posiblemente en relación al aumento de energía necesario para desarrollar mecanismos de aclimatación a la inundación, como la hipertrofia de las lenticelas que se observó en ambas especies. Por ello, el desequilibrio del balance de carbono de la planta podría ser un factor relevante en la mortalidad de las plantas ante inundaciones prolongadas. Las plantas de U. minor (cultivadas en envases de 16 litros a media sombra) sobrevivieron por un prolongado periodo de tiempo en verano sin riego; la mitad de las plantas murieron tras 90 días sin riego. El cierre de los estomas y la pérdida de hojas contribuyeron a ralentizar las pérdidas de agua y tolerar la sequía en U. minor. Las obvias diferencias en tolerancia a la sequía con respecto a Q. ilex se reflejaron en la distinta capacidad para ralentizar la aparición del estrés hídrico tras dejar de regar y para transportar agua en condiciones de elevada tensión en el xilema. Más relevante es que las plantas con evidentes síntomas de decaimiento previo a su muerte exhibieron pérdidas de conductividad hidráulica en las raíces del 80% en ambas especies, mientras que las reservas de carbohidratos apenas variaron y lo hicieron de forma desigual en ambas especies. Árboles de U. minor de 5 y 6 años de edad (plantados en eras con riego mantenido) exhibieron una respuesta a la inoculación con O. novo-ulmi consistente con ensayos previos de resistencia. La conductividad hidráulica del tallo, el potencial hídrico foliar y la tasa de asimilación de CO2 neta disminuyeron significativamente en relación a árboles inoculados con agua, pero solo en los clones susceptibles. Este hecho enlaza con el perfil químico “más defensivo” de los clones resistentes, es decir, con los mayores niveles de suberina, ácidos grasos y compuestos fenólicos en estos clones que en los susceptibles. Ello podría restringir la propagación del hongo en el árbol y preservar el comportamiento fisiológico de los clones resistentes al inocularlos con el patógeno. Los datos indican una respuesta fisiológica común de U. minor a la inundación, la sequía y la infección por O. novo-ulmi: pérdida de conductividad hidráulica, estrés hídrico y pérdida de ganancia neta de carbono. Pese a ello, U. minor desarrolla varios mecanismos que le confieren una capacidad moderada para vivir en suelos temporalmente anegados o secos. Por otro lado, el perfil químico es un factor relevante en la resistencia de ciertos genotipos a la grafiosis. Futuros estudios deberían examinar como este perfil químico y la resistencia a la grafiosis se ven alteradas por el estrés abiótico. ABSTRACT Ulmus minor is a native European elm species whose populations have been decimated by the Dutch elm disease (DED). An active conservation of this species requires large-scale plantations and a better understanding of its biology and ecology. U. minor generally grows close to water channels. However, of the Iberian riparian tree species, U. minor is the one that spread farther away from rivers and streams. For these reasons, we hypothesize that this species is moderately tolerant to both flooding and drought stresses. The main aim of the present PhD thesis is to better understand the functional response of U. minor to the abiotic stresses – flooding and drought – and the biotic stress – DED – that can be most influential on its distribution. The overarching goal is to aid in the conservation of this emblematic species through a better understanding of the mechanisms that contribute to resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses; an information that can help in the selection of resistant genotypes and their expansion in large-scale plantations. To this end, three experiments were set up. First, we compared the tolerance to experimental immersion between seedlings of U. minor and U. laevis – another European riparian elm species – in order to assess their degree of tolerance and understand the mechanisms of acclimation to this stress. Second, we investigated the tolerance to drought of U. minor seedlings in comparison with Quercus ilex (an oak species typical of dry Mediterranean habitats). Besides assessing and understanding U. minor tolerance to drought at the seedling stage, the aim was to shed light into the functional alterations that trigger drought-induced plant mortality – a matter of controversy in the last years. Third, we studied constitutive and induced physiological and biochemical differences among clones of variable DED resistance, before and following inoculation with Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. The goal is to shed light into the factors of DED resistance that is evident in some genotypes of U. minor, but not others. Potted seedlings of U. minor survived for 60 days immersed in a pool with running water to approximately 2-3 cm above the stem collar. By this time, U. minor seedlings died, whereas U. laevis seedlings moved out of the pool were able to recover most physiological functions that had been altered by flooding. For example, root hydraulic conductivity and leaf photosynthetic CO2 uptake decreased in both species; while respiration initially increased with flooding in leaves, stems and roots possibly to respond to energy demands associated to mechanisms of acclimation to soil oxygen deficiency; as example, a remarkable hypertrophy of lenticels was soon observed in flooded seedlings of both species. Therefore, the inability to maintain a positive carbon balance somehow compromises seedling survival under flooding, earlier in U. minor than U. laevis, partly explaining their differential habitats. Potted seedlings of U. minor survived for a remarkable long time without irrigation – half of plants dying only after 90 days of no irrigation in conditions of high vapour pressure deficit typical of summer. Some mechanisms that contributed to tolerate drought were leaf shedding and stomata closure, which reduced water loss and the risk of xylem cavitation. Obviously, U. minor was less tolerant to drought than Q. ilex, differences in drought tolerance resulting mostly from the distinct capacity to postpone water stress and conduct water under high xylem tension among species. More relevant was that plants of both species exhibited similar symptoms of root hydraulic failure (i.e. approximately 80% loss of hydraulic conductivity), but a slight and variable depletion of non-structural carbohydrate reserves preceding dieback. Five- and six-year-old trees of U. minor (planted in the field with supplementary watering) belonging to clones of contrasted susceptibility to DED exhibited a different physiological response to inoculation with O. novo-ulmi. Stem hydraulic conductivity, leaf water potential and photosynthetic CO2 uptake decreased significantly relative to control trees inoculated with water only in DED susceptible clones. This is consistent with the “more defensive” chemical profile observed in resistant clones, i.e. with higher levels of saturated hydrocarbons (suberin and fatty acids) and phenolic compounds than in susceptible clones. These compounds could restrict the spread of O. novo-ulmi and contribute to preserving the near-normal physiological function of resistant trees when exposed to the pathogen. These results evidence common physiological responses of U. minor to flooding, drought and pathogen infection leading to xylem water disruption, leaf water stress and reduced net carbon gain. Still, seedlings of U. minor develop various mechanisms of acclimation to abiotic stresses that can play a role in surviving moderate periods of flood and drought. The chemical profile appears to be an important factor for the resistance of some genotypes of U. minor to DED. How abiotic stresses such as flooding and drought affect the capacity of resistant U. minor clones to face O. novo-ulmi is a key question that must be contemplated in future research.