Improvement of Mechanical Properties and Life Extension of High Reliability Structural Components by Laser Shock Processing

Profiting by the increasing availability of laser sources delivering intensities above 109 W/cm2 with pulse energies in the range of several Joules and pulse widths in the range of nanoseconds, laser shock processing (LSP) is being consolidating as an effective technology for the improvement of surface mechanical and corrosion resistance properties of metals and is being developed as a practical process amenable to production engineering. The main acknowledged advantage of the laser shock processing technique consists on its capability of inducing a relatively deep compression residual stresses field into metallic alloy pieces allowing an improved mechanical behaviour, explicitly, the life improvement of the treated specimens against wear, crack growth and stress corrosion cracking. Following a short description of the theoretical/computational and experimental methods developed by the authors for the predictive assessment and experimental implementation of LSP treatments, experimental results on the residual stress profiles and associated surface properties modification successfully reached in typical materials (specifically Al and Ti alloys) under different LSP irradiation conditions are presented. In particular, the analysis of the residual stress profiles obtained under different irradiation parameters and the evaluation of the corresponding induced surface properties as roughness and wear resistance are presented.

Laser Shock Processing: An Emerging Technique for the Enhancement of Surface Properties and Fatigue Life of High Strength Metal Alloys

Profiting by the increasing availability of laser sources delivering intensities above 10 9 W/cm 2 with pulse energies in the range of several Joules and pulse widths in the range of nanoseconds, laser shock processing (LSP) is being consolidating as an effective technology for the improvement of surface mechanical and corrosion resistance properties of metals and is being developed as a practical process amenable to production engineering. The main acknowledged advantage of the laser shock processing technique consists on its capability of inducing a relatively deep compression residual stresses field into metallic alloy pieces allowing an improved mechanical behaviour, explicitly, the life improvement of the treated specimens against wear, crack growth and stress corrosion cracking. Following a short description of the theoretical/computational and experimental methods developed by the authors for the predictive assessment and experimental implementation of LSP treatments, experimental results on the residual stress profiles and associated surface properties modification successfully reached in typical materials (specifically steels and Al and Ti alloys) under different LSP irradiation conditions are presented

Desarrollo de nuevos tratamientos térmicos para aleaciones avanzadas de interés aeroespacial

La corrosión bajo tensiones (SCC) es un problema de gran importancia en las aleaciones de aluminio de máxima resistencia (serie Al-Zn-Mg-Cu). La utilización de tratamientos térmicos sobremadurados, en particular el T73, ha conseguido prácticamente eliminar la susceptibilidad a corrosión bajo tensiones en dichas aleaciones pero a costa de reducir su resistencia mecánica. Desde entonces se ha tratado de optimizar simultáneamente ambos comportamientos, encontrándose para ello diversos inconvenientes entre los que destacan: la dificultad de medir experimentalmente el crecimiento de grieta por SCC, y el desconocimiento de las causas y el mecanismo por el cual se produce la SCC. Los objetivos de esta Tesis son mejorar el sistema de medición de grietas y profundizar en el conocimiento de la SCC, con el fin de obtener tratamientos térmicos que aúnen un óptimo comportamiento tanto en SCC como mecánico en las aleaciones de aluminio de máxima resistencia utilizadas en aeronáutica. Para conseguir los objetivos anteriormente descritos se han realizado unos cuarenta tratamientos térmicos diferentes, de los cuales la gran mayoría son nuevos, para profundizar en el conocimiento de la influencia de la microestructura (fundamentalmente, de los precipitados coherentes) en el comportamiento de las aleaciones Al-Zn-Mg-Cu, y estudiar la viabilidad de nuevos tratamientos apoyados en el conocimiento adquirido. Con el fin de obtener unos resultados aplicables a productos o semiproductos de aplicación aeronáutica, los tratamientos térmicos se han realizado a trozos grandes de una plancha de 30 mm de espesor de la aleación de aluminio 7475, muy utilizada en las estructuras aeronáuticas. Asimismo con el objeto de conseguir una mayor fiabilidad de los resultados obtenidos se han utilizado, normalmente, tres probetas de cada tratamiento para los diferentes ensayos realizados. Para la caracterización de dichos tratamientos se han utilizado diversas técnicas: medida de dureza y conductividad eléctrica, ensayos de tracción, calorimetría diferencial de barrido (DSC), metalografía, fractografía, microscopia electrónica de transmisión (MET) y de barrido (MEB), y ensayos de crecimiento de grieta en probeta DCB, que a su vez han permitido hacer una estimación del comportamiento en tenacidad del material. Las principales conclusiones del estudio realizado se pueden resumir en las siguientes: Se han diseñado y desarrollado nuevos métodos de medición de grieta basados en el empleo de la técnica de ultrasonidos, que permiten medir el crecimiento de grieta por corrosión bajo tensiones con la precisión y fiabilidad necesarias para valorar adecuadamente la susceptibilidad a corrosión bajo tensiones. La mejora de medida de la posición del frente de grieta ha dado lugar, entre otras cosas, a la definición de un nuevo ensayo a iniciación en probetas preagrietadas. Asimismo, se ha deducido una nueva ecuación que permite calcular el factor de intensidad de tensiones existente en punta de grieta en probetas DCB teniendo en cuenta la influencia de la desviación del plano de crecimiento de la grieta del plano medio de la probeta. Este aspecto ha sido determinante para poder explicar los resultados experimentales obtenidos ya que el crecimiento de la grieta por un plano paralelo al plano medio de la probeta DCB pero alejado de él reduce notablemente el factor de intensidades de tensiones que actúa en punta de grieta y modifica las condiciones reales del ensayo. Por otro lado, se han identificado los diferentes constituyentes de la microestructura de precipitación de todos los tratamientos térmicos estudiados y, en especial, se ha conseguido constatar (mediante MET y DSC) la existencia de zonas de Guinier-Preston del tipo GP(II) en la microestructura de numerosos tratamientos térmicos (no descrita en la bibliografía para las aleaciones del tipo de la estudiada) lo que ha permitido establecer una nueva interpretación de la evolución de la microestructura en los diferentes tratamientos. Al hilo de lo anterior, se han definido nuevas secuencias de precipitación para este tipo de aleaciones, que han permitido entender mejor la constitución de la microestructura y su relación con las propiedades en los diferentes tratamientos térmicos estudiados. De igual manera, se ha explicado el papel de los diferentes microconstituyentes en diversas propiedades mecánicas (propiedades a tracción, dureza y tenacidad KIa); en particular, el estudio realizado de la relación de la microestructura con la tenacidad KIa es inédito. Por otra parte, se ha correlacionado el comportamiento en corrosión bajo tensiones, tanto en la etapa de incubación de grieta como en la de propagación, con las características medidas de los diferentes constituyentes microestructurales de los tratamientos térmicos ensayados, tanto de interior como de límite de grano, habiéndose obtenido que la microestructura de interior de grano tiene una mayor influencia en el comportamiento en corrosión bajo tensiones que la de límite de grano. De forma especial, se ha establecido la importancia capital, y muy negativa, de la presencia en la microestructura de zonas de Guinier-Preston en el crecimiento de la grieta por corrosión bajo tensiones. Finalmente, como consecuencia de todo lo anterior, se ha propuesto un nuevo mecanismo por el que se produce la corrosión bajo tensiones en este tipo de aleaciones de aluminio, y que de forma muy resumida se puede concretar lo siguiente: la acumulación de hidrógeno (formado, básicamente, por un proceso corrosivo de disolución anódica) delante de la zonas GP (en especial, de las zonas GP(I)) próximas a la zona libre de precipitados que se desarrolla alrededor del límite de grano provoca enfragilización local y causa el rápido crecimiento de grieta característico de algunos tratamientos térmicos de este tipo de aleaciones. ABSTRACT The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a major problem in the aluminum alloys of high resistance (series Al-Zn-Mg-Cu). The use of overaged heat treatments, particularly T73 has achieved virtually eliminate the susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking in such alloys but at the expense of reducing its mechanical strength. Since then we have tried to simultaneously optimize both behaviors, several drawbacks found for it among them: the difficulty of measuring experimentally the SCC crack growth, and ignorance of the causes and the mechanism by which SCC occurs. The objectives of this thesis are to improve the measurement system of cracks and deeper understanding of the SCC, in order to obtain heat treatments that combine optimum performance in both SCC and maximum mechanical strength in aluminum alloys used in aerospace To achieve the above objectives have been made about forty different heat treatments, of which the vast majority are new, to deepen the understanding of the influence of microstructure (mainly of coherent precipitates) in the behavior of the alloys Al -Zn-Mg-Cu, and study the feasibility of new treatments supported by the knowledge gained. To obtain results for products or semi-finished aircraft application, heat treatments were performed at a large pieces plate 30 mm thick aluminum alloy 7475, widely used in aeronautical structures. Also in order to achieve greater reliability of the results obtained have been used, normally, three specimens of each treatment for various tests. For the characterization of these treatments have been used several techniques: measurement of hardness and electrical conductivity, tensile testing, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), metallography, fractography, transmission (TEM) and scanning (SEM) electron microscopy, and crack growth tests on DCB specimen, which in turn have allowed to estimate the behavior of the material in fracture toughness. The main conclusions of the study can be summarized as follows: We have designed and developed new methods for measuring crack based on the use of the ultrasound technique, for measuring the growth of stress corrosion cracks with the accuracy and reliability needed to adequately assess the susceptibility to stress corrosion. Improved position measurement of the crack front has resulted, among other things, the definition of a new initiation essay in pre cracked specimens. Also, it has been inferred a new equation to calculate the stress intensity factor in crack tip existing in DCB specimens considering the influence of the deviation of the plane of the crack growth of the medium plane of the specimen. This has been crucial to explain the experimental results obtained since the crack growth by a plane parallel to the medium plane of the DCB specimen but away from it greatly reduces the stress intensity factor acting on the crack tip and modifies the actual conditions of the essay. Furthermore, we have identified the various constituents of the precipitation microstructure of all heat treatments studied and, in particular note has been achieved (by TEM and DSC) the existence of the type GP (II) of Guinier-Preston zones in the microstructure of several heat treatments (not described in the literature for alloys of the type studied) making it possible to establish a new interpretation of the evolution of the microstructure in the different treatments. In line with the above, we have defined new precipitation sequences for these alloys, which have allowed a better understanding of the formation of the microstructure in relation to the properties of different heat treatments studied. Similarly, explained the role of different microconstituents in various mechanical properties (tensile properties, hardness and toughness KIa), in particular, the study of the relationship between the tenacity KIa microstructure is unpublished. Moreover, has been correlated to the stress corrosion behavior, both in the incubation step as the crack propagation, with the measured characteristics of the various microstructural constituents heat treatments tested, both interior and boundary grain, having obtained the internal microstructure of grain has a greater influence on the stress corrosion cracking behavior in the grain boundary. In a special way, has established the importance, and very negative, the presence in the microstructure of Guinier-Preston zones in crack growth by stress corrosion. Finally, following the above, we have proposed a new mechanism by which stress corrosion cracking occurs in this type of aluminum alloy, and, very briefly, one can specify the following: the accumulation of hydrogen (formed basically by a corrosive process of anodic dissolution) in front of the GP zones (especially the GP (I) zones) near the precipitates free zone that develops around grain boundary causes local embrittlement which characterizes rapid crack growth of some heat treatments such alloys.

Ferromanganese nodules and micro-hardgrounds associated with the Cadiz Contourite Channel (NE Atlantic): Palaeoenvironmental records of fluid venting and bottom currents

Ferromanganese nodule fields and hardgrounds have recently been discovered in the Cadiz Contourite Channel in the Gulf of Cadiz (850–1000 m). This channel is part of a large contourite depositional system generated by the Mediterranean Outflow Water. Ferromanganese deposits linked to contourites are interesting tools for palaeoenviromental studies and show an increasing economic interest as potential mineral resources for base and strategic metals. We present a complete characterisation of these deposits based on submarine photographs and geophysical, petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical data. The genesis and growth of ferromanganese deposits, strongly enriched in Fe vs. Mn (av. 39% vs. 6%) in this contourite depositional system result from the combination of hydrogenetic and diagenetic processes. The interaction of the Mediterranean Outflow Water with the continental margin has led to the formation of Late Pleistocene–Holocene ferromanganese mineral deposits, in parallel to the evolution of the contourite depositional system triggered by climatic and tectonic events. The diagenetic growth was fuelled by the anaerobic oxidation of thermogenic hydrocarbons (δ13CPDB=−20 to −37‰) and organic matter within the channel floor sediments, promoting the formation of Fe–Mn carbonate nodules. High 87Sr/86Sr isotopic values (up to 0.70993±0.00025) observed in the inner parts of nodules are related to the influence of radiogenic fluids fuelled by deep-seated fluid venting across the fault systems in the diapirs below the Cadiz Contourite Channel. Erosive action of the Mediterranean Outflow Water undercurrent could have exhumed the Fe–Mn carbonate nodules, especially in the glacial periods, when the lower core of the undercurrent was more active in the study area. The growth rate determined by 230Thexcess/232Th was 113±11 mm/Ma, supporting the hypothesis that the growth of the nodules records palaeoenvironmental changes during the last 70 ka. Ca-rich layers in the nodules could point to the interaction between the Mediterranean Outflow Water and the North Atlantic Deep Water during the Heinrich events. Siderite–rhodochrosite nodules exposed to the oxidising seabottom waters were replaced by Fe–Mn oxyhydroxides. Slow hydrogenetic growth of goethite from the seawaters is observed in the outermost parts of the exhumed nodules and hardgrounds, which show imprints of the Mediterranean Outflow Water with low 87Sr/86Sr isotopic values (down to 0.70693±0.00081). We propose a new genetic and evolutionary model for ferromanganese oxide nodules derived from ferromanganese carbonate nodules formed on continental margins above the carbonate compensation depth and dominated by hydrocarbon seepage structures and strong erosive action of bottom currents. We also compare and discuss the generation of ferromanganese deposits in the Cadiz Contourite Channel with that in other locations and suggest that our model can be applied to ferromanganiferous deposits in other contouritic systems affected by fluid venting.

Intraply fracture of fiber-reinforced composites: microscopic mechanisms and modeling

The fracture behavior parallel to the fibers of an E-glass/epoxy unidirectional laminate was studied by means of three-point tests on notched beams. Selected tests were carried out within a scanning electron microscope to ascertain the damage and fracture micromechanisms upon loading. The mechanical behavior of the notched beam was simulated within the framework of the embedded cell model, in which the actual composite microstructure was resolved in front of the notch tip. In addition, matrix and interface properties were independently measured in situ using a nanoindentor. The numerical simulations very accurately predicted the macroscopic response of the composite as well as the damage development and crack growth in front of the notch tip, demonstrating the ability of the embedded cell approach to simulate the fracture behavior of heterogeneous materials. Finally, this methodology was exploited to ascertain the influence of matrix and interface properties on the intraply toughness.

Mechanical properties enhancement of high reliability metallic materials by laser shock processing

Laser shock processing (LSP) is being increasingly applied as an effective technology for the improvement of metallic materials surface properties in different types of components as a means of enhancement of their corrosion and fatigue life behavior. As reported in previous contributions by the authors, a main effect resulting from the application of the LSP technique consists on the generation of relatively deep compression residual stresses field into metallic alloy pieces allowing an improved mechanical behaviour, explicitly the life improvement of the treated specimens against wear, crack growth and stress corrosion cracking. Additional results accomplished by the authors in the line of practical development of the LSP technique at an experimental level (aiming its integral assessment from an interrelated theoretical and experimental point of view) are presented in this paper. Concretely, follow-on experimental results on the residual stress profiles and associated surface properties modification successfully reached in typical materials (especially Al and Ti alloys) under different LSP irradiation conditions are presented along with a practical correlated analysis on the protective character of the residual stress profiles obtained under different irradiation strategies and the evaluation of the corresponding induced properties as material specific volume reduction at the surface, microhardness and wear resistance. Additional remarks on the improved character of the LSP technique over the traditional “shot peening” technique in what concerns depth of induced compressive residual stresses fields are also made through the paper.

Diseño y aplicación de una metodología prospectiva para la determinación de los condicionantes futuros del crecimiento de los grandes buques portacontenedores

Durante las últimas décadas se observa una tendencia sostenida al crecimiento en las dimensiones de los grandes buques portacontenedores, que produce, que las infraestructuras portuarias y otras destinadas al tráfico de contenedores deban adaptarse para poder brindar los servicios correspondientes y mantenerse competitivas con otras para no perder el mercado. Esta situación implica importantes inversiones y modificaciones en los sistemas de transporte de contenedores por el gran volumen de carga que se debe mover en un corto periodo de tiempo, lo que genera la necesidad de tomar previsiones relacionadas con la probable evolución a futuro de las dimensiones que alcanzarán los grandes buques portacontenedores. En relación a los aspectos citados surge la inquietud de determinar los condicionantes futuros del crecimiento de los grandes buques portacontenedores, con una visión totalizadora de todos los factores que incidirán en los próximos años, ya sea como un freno o un impulso a la tendencia que se verifica en el pasado y en el presente. En consideración a que el tema a tratar y resolver se encuentra en el futuro, con un horizonte de predicción de veinte años, se diseña y se aplica una metodología prospectiva, que permite alcanzar conclusiones con mayor grado de objetividad sobre probables escenarios futuros. La metodología prospectiva diseñada, conjuga distintas herramientas metodológicas, cualitativas, semi-cuantitativas y cuantitativas que se validan entre sí. Sobre la base del pasado y el presente, las herramientas cuantitativas permiten encontrar relaciones entre variables y hacer proyecciones, sin embargo, estas metodologías pierden validez más allá de los tres a cuatro años, por los vertiginosos y dinámicos cambios que se producen actualmente, en las áreas política, social y económica. Las metodologías semi-cuantitativas y cualitativas, empleadas en forma conjunta e integradas, permiten el análisis de circunstancias del pasado y del presente, obteniendo resultados cuantitativos que se pueden proyectar hacia un futuro cercano, los que integrados en estudios cualitativos proporcionan resultados a largo plazo, facilitando considerar variables cualitativas como la creciente preocupación por la preservación del medio ambiente y la piratería. La presente tesis, tiene como objetivo principal “identificar los condicionantes futuros del crecimiento de los grandes buques portacontenedores y determinar sus escenarios”. Para lo cual, la misma se estructura en fases consecutivas y que se retroalimentan continuamente. Las tres primeras fases son un enfoque sobre el pasado y el presente, que establece el problema a resolver. Se estudian los antecedentes y el estado del conocimiento en relación a los factores y circunstancias que motivaron y facilitaron la tendencia al crecimiento de los grandes buques. También se estudia el estado del conocimiento de las metodologías para predecir el futuro y se diseña de una metodología prospectiva. La cuarta fase, denominada Resultados, se desarrolla en distintas etapas, fundamentadas en las fases anteriores, con el fin de resolver el problema dando respuestas a las preguntas que se formularon para alcanzar el objetivo fijado. En el proceso de esta fase, con el objeto de predecir probables futuros, se aplica la metodología prospectiva diseñada, que contempla el análisis del pasado y el presente, que determina los factores cuya influencia provocó el crecimiento en dimensiones de los grandes buques hasta la actualidad, y que constituye la base para emplear los métodos prospectivos que permiten determinar qué factores condicionarán en el futuro la evolución de los grandes buques. El probable escenario futuro formado por los factores determinados por el criterio experto, es validado mediante un modelo cuantitativo dinámico, que además de obtener el probable escenario futuro basado en las tendencias de comportamiento hasta el presente de los factores determinantes considerados, permite estudiar distintos probables escenarios futuros en función de considerar un cambio en la tendencia futura de los factores determinantes. El análisis del pasado indica que la tendencia al crecimiento de los grandes buques portacontenedores hasta el presente, se ha motivado por un crecimiento económico mundial que se tradujo en un aumento del comercio internacional, particularmente entre los países de Asia, con Europa y Estados Unidos. Esta tendencia se ha visto favorecida por el factor globalización y la acelerada evolución tecnológica que ha permitido superar los obstáculos que se presentaron. Es de destacar que aún en periodos de crisis económicas, con pronósticos de contracciones en el comercio, en los últimos años continuó la tendencia al crecimiento en dimensiones, en busca de una economía de escala para el transporte marítimo de contenedores, en las rutas transoceánicas. La investigación de la evolución de los grandes buques portacontenedores en el futuro, se efectúa mediante el empleo de una metodología prospectiva en la que el criterio experto se valida con un método cuantitativo dinámico, y además se fundamenta en una solida base pre-prospectiva. La metodología diseñada permite evaluar con un alto grado de objetividad cuales serán los condicionantes que incidirán en el crecimiento en tamaño de los grandes buques portacontenedores en el escenario con mayor probabilidad de acontecer en los próximos veinte años (2032), y también en otros escenarios que podrían presentarse en el caso de que los factores modifiquen su tendencia o bien se produzcan hechos aleatorios. El resultado se sintetiza en que la tendencia al crecimiento de los grandes buques portacontenedores en los próximos 20 años se verá condicionada por factores en relación a los conceptos de oferta (los que facilitan u obstaculizan la tendencia), demanda (los que motivan o impulsan la tendencia) y factores externos (los que desestabilizan el equilibrio entre oferta y demanda). La tendencia al crecimiento de los grandes buques portacontenedores se verá obstaculizada / limitada principalmente por factores relacionados a las infraestructuras, resultando los pasos y/o canales vinculados a las rutas marítimas, los limitantes futuros al crecimiento en dimensiones de los grandes buques portacontenedores; y la interacción buque / infraestructura (grúas) un factor que tenderá a obstaculizar esta tendencia de los grandes portacontenedores. El desarrollo económico mundial que estimula el comercio internacional y los factores precio del petróleo y condicionantes medioambientales impulsarán la tendencia al crecimiento de los grandes buques portacontenedores. Recent years have seen a sustained tendency towards the growth in the dimensions of large container ships. This has meant that port and other infrastructure used for container traffic has had to be adapted in order to provide the required services and to maintain a competitive position, so as not to lose market share. This situation implies the need for major investments in modifications to the container transport system, on account of the large volume of traffic to be handled in a short period of time. This in turn has generated a need to make provision for the probable future evolution of the ultimate dimensions that will be reached by large container ships. Such considerations give rise to the question of what are the future determinants for the growth of large container ships, requiring an overall vision of all the factors that will apply in future years, whether as a brake on or an incentive to the growth tendency which has been seen in the past and present In view of the fact that the theme to be dealt with and resolved relates to the future, with a forecasting horizon of some 20 years, a foresight methodology has been designed and applied so as to enable conclusions about probable future scenarios to be reached with a greater degree of objectivity. The designed methodology contains different methodological tools, both qualitative, semi-quantitative and quantitative, which are internally consistent. On the basis of past and present observations, the quantitative elements enable relationships to be established and forecasts to be made. Nevertheless such an approach loses validity more than three or four years into the future, on account of the very rapid and dynamic changes which may be seen at present in political, social and economic spheres. The semi-quantitative and qualitative methodologies are used coherently together and allow the analysis of past and present conditions, thus obtaining quantitative results which for short-term projections, which when integrated with the qualitative studies provide results for the long-term, facilitating the consideration of qualitative variables such as the increasing importance of environmental protection and the impact of piracy. The principal objective of the present thesis is "to identify the future conditions affecting the growth of large container ships and to determine possible scenarios". The thesis is structured in consecutive and related phases. The first three phases focus on the past and present in order to determine the problem to be resolved. The background is studied in order to establish the state of knowledge about the factors and circumstances which have motivated and facilitated the growth tendency for large container ships and the methodologies that have been used. In this way a specific foresight methodology is designed. The fourth phase, Results, is developed in distinct stages based on the previous phases, so as to resolve the problem posed and responding to the questions that arise. In this way the determined objective is reached. The fourth phase sees the application of the methodology that has been designed in order to predict posible futures. This includes analysis of the past and present factors which have caused the growth in the dimensions of large container ships up to the present. These provide the basis on which to apply the foresight methods which enable the future factors which will condition the development of such large container ships. The probable future scenarios are made up of the factors identified by expert judgement (using the Delphi technique) and validated by means of a dynamic quantitative model. This model both identifies the probable future scenarios based on past and present factors and enables the different future scenarios to be analysed as a function of future changes in the conditioning factors. Analysis of the past shows that the growth tendency up to the present for large container ships has been motivated by the growth of the world economy and the consequent increased international trade, especially between the countries of Asia with Europe and the United States. This tendency has been favoured by the trend towards globalization and by the rapid technical evolution in ship design, which has allowed the obstacles encountered to be overcome. It should be noted that even in periods of economic crisis, with an expectation for reduced trade, as experienced in recent years, the tendency towards increased ship dimensions has continued in search of economies of scale for the maritime transport of containers on transoceanic routes. The present investigation of the future evolution of large container ships has been done using a foresight methodology in which the expert judgement is validated by a dynamic quantitative methodology, founded on a firm pre-foresight analysis. The methodology that has been designed permits the evaluation, with a high degree of objectivity, of the future factors that will affect the growth of large container ships for the most probable scenario expected in the next 20 years (up to 2032). The evaluation applies also to other scenarios which may arise, in the event that their component factors are modified or indeed in the light of random events. In summary, the conclusión is that the tendency for growth in large container ships in the future 20 years will be determined by: factors related to supply, which slow or halt the tendency; factors related to demand, which encourage the tendency and finally, external factors which interrupt the equilibrium between supply and demand. The tendency for increasing growth in large container ships will be limited or even halted by factors related to infrastructure, including the natural and man-made straits and canals used by maritime transport. In addition the infrastructure required to serve such vessels both in port (including cranes and other equipment) and related transport, will tend to slow the growth tendency. The factors which will continue to encourage the tendency towards the growth of large container ships include world economic development, which stimulates international trade, and an increasing emphasis on environmental aspects.

Effect of Thermal Treatments on the Mechanical Properties Enhancement of High Reliability Metallic Materials by Laser Shock Processing

Laser shock processing (LSP) is increasingly applied as an effective technology for the improvement of metallic materials mechanical properties in different types of components as a means of enhancement of their fatigue life behavior. As reported in previous contributions by the authors, a main effect resulting from the application of the LSP technique consists on the generation of relatively deep compression residual stresses fields into metallic components allowing an improved mechanical behaviour, explicitly the life improvement of the treated specimens against wear, crack growth and stress corrosion cracking. Additional results accomplished by the authors in the line of practical development of the LSP technique at an experimental level (aiming its integral assessment from an interrelated theoretical and experimental point of view) are presented in this paper. Concretely, experimental results on the residual stress profiles and associated mechanical properties modification successfully reached in typical materials under different LSP irradiation conditions are presented. In this case, the specific behavior of a widely used material in high reliability components (especially in nuclear and biomedical applications) as AISI 316L is analyzed, the effect of possible “in-service” thermal conditions on the relaxation of the LSP effects being specifically characterized. I.

Induction of engineered residual stresses fields and enhancement of fatigue life of high reliability metallic components by laser shock processing

Laser shock processing (LSP) is being increasingly applied as an effective technology for the improvement of metallic materials mechanical and surface properties in different types of components as a means of enhancement of their corrosion and fatigue life behavior. As reported in previous contributions by the authors, a main effect resulting from the application of the LSP technique consists on the generation of relatively deep compression residual stresses field into metallic alloy pieces allowing an improved mechanical behaviour, explicitly the life improvement of the treated specimens against wear, crack growth and stress corrosion cracking. Additional results accomplished by the authors in the line of practical development of the LSP technique at an experimental level (aiming its integral assessment from an interrelated theoretical and experimental point of view) are presented in this paper. Concretely, follow-on experimental results on the residual stress profiles and associated surface properties modification successfully reached in typical materials (especially Al and Ti alloys characteristic of high reliability components in the aerospace, nuclear and biomedical sectors) under different LSP irradiation conditions are presented along with a practical correlated analysis on the protective character of the residual stress profiles obtained under different irradiation strategies. Additional remarks on the improved character of the LSP technique over the traditional “shot peening” technique in what concerns depth of induced compressive residual stresses fields are also made through the paper

Effect of Thermal Treatments on the Mechanical Properties Enhancement of High Reliability Metallic Materials by Laser Shock Processing

Laser shock processing (LSP) is increasingly applied as an effective technology for the improvement of metallic materials mechanical properties in different types of components as a means of enhancement of their fatigue life behavior. As reported in previous contributions by the authors, a main effect resulting from the application of the LSP technique consists on the generation of relatively deep compression residual stresses fields into metallic components allowing an improved mechanical behaviour, explicitly the life improvement of the treated specimens against wear, crack growth and stress corrosion cracking. Additional results accomplished by the authors in the line of practical development of the LSP technique at an experimental level (aiming its integral assessment from an interrelated theoretical and experimental point of view)are presented in this paper. Concretely, experimental results on the residual stress profiles and associated mechanical properties modification successfully reached in typical materials under different LSP irradiation conditions are presented. In this case, the specific behavior of a widely used material in high reliability components (especially in nuclear and biomedical applications) as AISI 316L is analyzed, the effect of possible “in-service” thermal conditions on the relaxation of the LSP effects being specifically characterized.

Unearthing the roots of degradation of Quercus pyrenaica coppices: an integrative perspective from clonal structure to carbon budgets

Quercus pyrenaica es una especie rebrotadora de raíz intensa e históricamente aprovechada en monte bajo para la obtención de leñas, carbón y pastos. Debido al éxodo rural y a la aparición de nuevas fuentes energéticas, este aprovechamiento fue abandonado en la década de 1970. Desde entonces, las bajas producciones de madera y bellota y el puntisecado de los pies evidencian el generalizado estancamiento de estas masas. Uno de los mayores retos actuales de la selvicultura en el ámbito mediterráneo es encontrar usos alternativos para estos montes abandonados, siendo la conversión a monte alto una de las alternativas preferidas. Se han realizado resalveos de conversión, sin embrago, éstos se aplican sin un conocimiento integral de las causas de la degradación. En esta tesis doctoral, estudiamos un hipotético desequilibrio entre la parte radical y la parte aérea (R:S) de las cepas de rebollo como causa subyacente de su decaimiento. En una parcela experimental, aprovechada al menos desde el siglo XII, se realizaron análisis genéticos a priori para elucidar la estructura genética del rodal, y así estudiar la influencia del tamaño clonal en el funcionamiento de las cepas. Las cepas de mayor tamaño presentaron un menor crecimiento diametral de sus pies, así como mayores tasas de respiración radical, estimadas a partir de flujos internos de CO2 a través del xilema (FT) y de los flujos de CO2 del suelo. Estos resultados sugieren que el desequilibrio R:S aumenta con el tamaño clonal, dado que la eliminación periódica de órganos aéreos, al mismo tiempo que las raíces permanecen intactas, da lugar a un gran desarrollo del sistema radical que consume gran parte de los carbohidratos no estructurales (NSC) en respiración de mantenimiento, comprometiendo así el desarrollo de órganos aéreos. Se excavaron y pesaron dos cepas compuestas por cuatro y ocho pies, las cuales mostraron ratios R:S (0.5 y 1, respectivamente) superiores a los registrados en pies de origen sexual. Al igual que en otras especies rebrotadoras de raíz, se observaron altas concentraciones de NSC en las raíces (> 20% en primavera) y una gran proporción de albura en el sistema radical (52%) que alberga una notable reserva de NSC (87 kg en la cepa de mayor tamaño). En el sistema radical de dicha cepa, estimada mediante dataciones radiocarbónicas en 550 años de edad, se contaron 248 uniones radicales. La persistencia de sistemas radicales grandes, viejos, y altamente interconectados sugiere que la gran cantidad de recursos almacenados y consumidos en las raíces compensan un pobre desarrollo aéreo con una alta resiliencia vegetativa. Para un mejor entendimiento de los balances de carbono y del agotamiento de NSC en las cepas de rebollo, se midieron los flujos internos y externos de CO2 en troncos y los flujos de CO2 del suelo, y se estimó la respiración de órganos aéreos (RS) y subterráneos (RR). Estacionalmente, RS y RR reflejaron las dinámicas de flujo de savia y de crecimiento del tronco, y estuvieron determinadas principalmente por los flujos externos de CO2, dada la escasa contribución de FT a RS y RR (< 10% y < 2%, respectivamente). En una escala circadiana, la contribución de FT a RS aumentó hasta un 25% en momentos de alta transpiración. Las bajas concentraciones de CO2 en el xilema ([CO2] hasta un 0.11%) determinaron comparativamente unos bajos FT, probablemente causados por una limitada respiración del xilema y una baja resistencia a la difusión radial del CO2 impuestos por la sequía estival. Los pulsos de [CO2] observados tras las primeras lluvias de otoño apoyan esta idea. A lo largo del periodo vegetativo, el flujo medio de CO2 procedente del suelo (39 mol CO2 day-1) fue el mayor flujo respiratorio, tres y cuatro veces superior a RS (12 mol CO2 day-1) y RR (8-9 mol CO2 day-1), respectivamente. Ratios RR/RS menores que la unidad evidencian un importante peso de la respiración aérea como sumidero de carbono adicional. Finalmente, se ensayó el zanjado de raíces y el anillamiento de troncos como tratamientos selvícolas alternativos con el objetivo de aumentar las reservas de NSC en los troncos de las cepas. Los resultados preliminares desaconsejan el zanjado de raíces por el alto coste derivado posiblemente de la cicatrización de las heridas. El anillado de troncos imposibilitó el transporte de NSC a las raíces y aumentó la concentración de almidón por encima de la zona anillada, mientras que sistema radical se mantiene por los pies no anillados de la cepa. Son necesarias más mediciones y datos adicionales para comprobar el mantenimiento de esta respuesta positiva a largo plazo. Para concluir, destacamos la necesidad de estudios multidisciplinares que permitan una comprensión integral de la degradación de los rebollares ibéricos para poder aplicar a posteriori una gestión adecuada en estos montes bajos abandonados. ABSTRACT Quercus pyrenaica is a vigorous root-resprouting species intensively and historically coppiced for firewood, charcoal and woody pastures. Due to the rural exodus and the appearance of new energy sources, coppicing was abandoned towards 1970. Since then, tree overaging has resulted in stand stagnation displayed by slow stem growth, branch dieback, and scarce acorn production. The urgent need to find new alternative uses for abandoned coppices is recognized as one of the biggest challenges which currently faces Mediterranean silviculture; conversion into high forest by thinning is one of the preferred alternatives. For this aim, thinning has been broadly applied and seldom tested, although without a comprehensive understanding of the causes of stand stagnation. In this PhD study, we test the hypothesis of an imbalance between above- and below-ground organs, result of long term coppicing, as the underlying cause of Q. pyrenaica decay. In an experimental plot coppiced since at least the 12th century, genetic analyses were performed a priori to elucidate inconspicuous clonal structure of Q. pyrenaica to evaluate how clonal size affects the functioning of these multi-stemmed trees. Clonal size negatively affected diametric stem growth, whereas root respiration rates, measured by internal fluxes of CO2 through xylem (FT) and soil CO2 efflux, increased with clonal size. These results suggest root-to-shoot (R:S) imbalance intensifying with clonal size: periodic removal of aboveground organs whilst belowground organs remain undisturbed may have led to massive root systems which consume a great proportion of non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) for maintenance respiration, thus constraining aboveground performance. Furthermore, excavation of two multi-stemmed trees, composed by four and eight stems, revealed R:S ratios (0.5 and 1, respectively) greater than those reported for sexually regenerated trees. Moreover, as similarly observed in several root-resprouting species, NSC allocation to roots was favored ([NSC] > 20% in spring): a large proportion of sapwood maintained throughout the root system (52%) stored a remarkable NSC pool of 87 kg in the case of the largest clone. In this root system of the eight-stemmed tree, 248 root connections were counted and, by radiocarbon dating, its age was estimated to be 550-years-old. Persistence of massive, old and highly interconnected root systems suggests that enhanced belowground NSC storage and consumption reflects a trade-off between vegetative resilience and aboveground development. For a better understanding of tree carbon budget and the potential role of carbon starvation in Q. pyrenaica decay, internal and external stem CO2 fluxes and soil CO2 effluxes were monitored to evaluate respiratory costs above- and below-ground. On a seasonal scale, stem and root respiration (RS and RR) mirrored sap flow and stem growth dynamics. Respiration was determined to the greatest extent by external fluxes of CO2 to the atmosphere or soil, since FT accounted for a low proportion of RS and RR (< 10% and < 2%, respectively). On a diel scale, the contribution of FT to RS increased up to 25% at high transpiration rates. Comparatively low FT was determined by the low concentration of xylem CO2 registered ([CO2] as low as 0.11%), likely as a consequence of constrained xylem respiration and reduced resistance to CO2 radial diffusion imposed by summer drought. Xylem [CO2] pulses following first autumn rains support this idea. Averaged over the growing season, soil CO2 efflux was the greatest respiratory flux (39 mol CO2 day-1), three and four times greater than RS (12 mol CO2 day-1) and RR (8-9 mol CO2 day-1), respectively. Ratios of RR/RS below one evidence an additional and important weight of aboveground respiration as a tree carbon sink. Finally, root trenching and stem girdling were tested as complimentary treatments to thinning as a means to improve carbon reserves in stems of clonal trees. Preliminary results discouraged root trenching due to the high cost likely incurred for wound closure. Stem girdling successfully blocked NSC translocation downward, increasing starch concentrations above the girdled zone whilst the root system is fed by non-girdled stems within the clone. Further measurements and ancillary data are necessary to verify that this positive effect hold over time. To conclude, the need of multidisciplinary approaches for an integrative understanding on the functioning of abandoned Q pyrenaica coppices is highlighted for an appropriate management of these stands.

Análisis del comportamiento a fatiga de uniones adhesivas de acero recubierto

Los adhesivos se conocen y han sido utilizados en multitud de aplicaciones a lo lago de la historia. En la actualidad, la tecnología de la adhesión como método de unión de materiales estructurales está en pleno crecimiento. Los avances científicos han permitido comprender mejor los fenómenos de adhesión, así como, mejorar y desarrollar nuevas formulaciones poliméricas que incrementan el rango de aplicaciones de los adhesivos. Por otro lado, el desarrollo de nuevos materiales y la necesidad de aligerar peso, especialmente en el sector transporte, hace que las uniones adhesivas se introduzcan en aplicaciones hasta ahora reservadas a otros sistemas de unión como la soldadura o las uniones mecánicas, ofreciendo rendimientos similares y, en ocasiones, superiores a los aportados por estas. Las uniones adhesivas ofrecen numerosas ventajas frente a otros sistemas de unión. En la industria aeronáutica y en automoción, las uniones adhesivas logran una reducción en el número de componentes (tales como los tornillos, remaches, abrazaderas) consiguiendo como consecuencia diseños más ligeros y una disminución de los costes de manipulación y almacenamiento, así como una aceleración de los procesos de ensamblaje, y como consecuencia, un aumento de los procesos de producción. En el sector de la construcción y en la fabricación de equipos industriales, se busca la capacidad para soportar la expansión y contracción térmica. Por lo tanto, se usan las uniones adhesivas para evitar producir la distorsión del sustrato al no ser necesario el calentamiento ni la deformación de las piezas cuando se someten a un calentamiento elevado y muy localizado, como en el caso de la soldadura, o cuando se someten a esfuerzos mecánicos localizados, en el caso de montajes remachados. En la industria naval, se están desarrollando técnicas de reparación basadas en la unión adhesiva para distribuir de forma más uniforme y homogénea las tensiones con el objetivo de mejorar el comportamiento frente a fatiga y evitar los problemas asociados a las técnicas de reparación habituales de corte y soldadura. Las uniones adhesivas al no requerir importantes aportes de calor como la soldadura, no producen modificaciones microestructurales indeseables como sucede en la zona fundida o en la zona afectada térmicamente de las uniones soldadas, ni deteriora los recubrimientos protectores de metales de bajo punto de fusión o de naturaleza orgánica. Sin embargo, las uniones adhesivas presentan una desventaja que dificulta su aplicación, se trata de su durabilidad a largo plazo. La primera causa de rotura de los materiales es la rotura por fatiga. Este proceso de fallo es la causa del 85% de las roturas de los materiales estructurales en servicio. La rotura por fatiga se produce cuando se somete al material a la acción de cargas que varían cíclicamente o a vibraciones durante un tiempo prolongado. Las uniones y estructuras sometidas a fatiga pueden fallar a niveles de carga por debajo del límite de resistencia estática del material. La rotura por fatiga en las uniones adhesivas no se produce por un proceso de iniciación y propagación de grieta de forma estable, el proceso de fatiga va debilitando poco a poco la unión hasta que llega un momento que provoca una rotura de forma rápida. Underhill explica este mecanismo como un proceso de daño irreversible de los enlaces más débiles en determinados puntos de la unión. Cuando se ha producido el deterioro de estas zonas más débiles, su área se va incrementando hasta que llega un momento en que la zona dañada es tan amplia que se produce el fallo completo de la unión. En ensayos de crecimiento de grieta realizados sobre probetas preagrietadas en viga con doble voladizo (DCB), Dessureault identifica los procesos de iniciación y crecimiento de grietas en muestras unidas con adhesivo epoxi como una acumulación de microfisuras en la zona próxima al fondo de grieta que, luego, van coalesciendo para configurar la grieta principal. Lo que supone, igualmente, un proceso de daño del adhesivo en la zona de mayor concentración de tensiones que, posteriormente, conduce al fallo de la unión. La presente tesis surge con el propósito de aumentar los conocimientos existentes sobre el comportamiento a fatiga de las uniones adhesivas y especialmente las realizadas con dos tipos de adhesivos estructurales aplicados en aceros con diferentes acabados superficiales. El estudio incluye la obtención de las curvas de tensión frente al número de ciclos hasta el fallo del componente, curvas SN o curvas de Wöhler, que permitirán realizar una estimación de la resistencia a la fatiga de un determinado material o estructura. Los ensayos de fatiga realizados mediante ciclos predeterminados de carga sinusoidales, de amplitud y frecuencia constantes, han permitido caracterizar el comportamiento a la fatiga por el número de ciclos hasta la rotura, siendo el límite de fatiga el valor al que tiende la tensión cuando el número de ciclos es muy grande. En algunos materiales, la fatiga no tiende a un valor límite sino que decrece de forma constante a medida que aumenta el número de ciclos. Para estas situaciones, se ha definido la resistencia a la fatiga (o límite de resistencia) por la tensión en que se produce la rotura para un número de ciclos predeterminado. Todos estos aspectos permitirán un mejor diseño de las uniones y las condiciones de trabajo de los adhesivos con el fin de lograr que la resistencia a fatiga de la unión sea mucho más duradera y el comportamiento total de la unión sea mucho mejor, contribuyendo al crecimiento de la utilización de las uniones adhesivas respecto a otras técnicas. ABSTRACT Adhesives are well-known and have been used in many applications throughout history. At present, adhesion bonding technology of structural materials is experiencing an important growth. Scientific advances have enabled a better understanding of the phenomena of adhesion, as well as to improve and develop new polymeric formulations that increase the range of applications. On the other hand, the development of new materials and the need to save weight, especially in the transport sector, have promote the use of adhesive bonding in many applications previously reserved for other joining technologies such as welded or mechanical joints, presenting similar or even higher performances. Adhesive bonding offers many advantages over other joining methods. For example, in the aeronautic industry and in the automation sector, adhesive bonding allows a reduction in the number of components (such as bolts, rivets, clamps) and as consequence, resulting in lighter designs and a decrease in handling and storage costs, as well as faster assembly processes and an improvement in the production processes. In the construction sector and in the industrial equipment manufacturing, the ability to withstand thermal expansion and contraction is required. Therefore, adhesion bonding technology is used to avoid any distortion of the substrate since this technology does not require heating nor the deformation of the pieces when these are exposed to very high and localized heating, as in welding, or when are subjected to localized mechanical stresses in the case of riveted joints. In the naval industry, repair techniques based in the adhesive bonding are being developed in order to distribute stresses more uniform and homogeneously in order to improve the performance against fatigue and to avoid the problems associated with standard repair techniques as cutting and welding. Adhesive bonding does not require the use of high temperatures and as consequence they do not produce undesirable microstructural changes, as it can be observed in molten zones or in heat-affected zones in the case of welding, neither is there damage of the protective coating of metals with low melting points or polymeric films. However, adhesive bonding presents a disadvantage that limits its application, the low longterm durability. The most common cause of fractures of materials is fatigue fracture. This failure process is the cause of 85% of the fracture of structural materials in service. Fatigue failure occurs when the materials are subjected to the action of cyclic loads or vibrations for a long period of time. The joints and structures subjected to fatigue can fail at stress values below the static strength of the material. Fatigue failure do not occurs by a static and homogeneous process of initiation and propagation of crack. The fatigue process gradually weakens the bond until the moment in which the fracture occurs very rapidly. Underhill explains this mechanism as a process of irreversible damage of the weakest links at certain points of the bonding. When the deterioration in these weaker zones occurs, their area increase until the damage zone is so extensive that the full failure of the joint occurs. During the crack growth tests performed on precracked double-cantilever beam specimen, (DCB), Dessureault identified the processes of crack initiation and growth in samples bonded with epoxy adhesive as a process of accumulation of microcracks on the zone near the crack bottom, then, they coalesced to configure the main crack. This is a damage process of the adhesive in the zone of high stress concentration that leads to failure of the bond. This thesis aims to further the understanding of the fatigue behavior of the adhesive bonding, primarily those based on two different types of structural adhesives used on carbon-steel with different surface treatments. This memory includes the analysis of the SN or Wöhler curves (stress vs. number of cycles curves up to the failure), allowing to carry out an estimation of the fatigue strength of a specific material or structure. The fatigue tests carried out by means of predetermined cycles of sinusoidal loads, with a constant amplitude and frequency, allow the characterisation of the fatigue behaviour. For some materials, there is a maximum stress amplitude below which the material never fails for any number of cycles, known as fatigue limit. In the other hand, for other materials, the fatigue does not tend toward a limit value but decreases constantly as the number of cycles increases. For these situations, the fatigue strength is defined by the stress at which the fracture occurs for a predetermined number of cycles. All these aspects will enable a better joint design and service conditions of adhesives in order to get more durable joints from the fatigue failure point of view and in this way contribute to increase the use of adhesive bonding over other joint techniques.

Crack mechanical failure in lithium niobate crystal under ion irradiation; novel simulation by extended finite elements

Swift heavy ion irradiation (ions with mass heavier than 15 and energy exceeding MeV/amu) transfer their energy mainly to the electronic system with small momentum transfer per collision. Therefore, they produce linear regions (columnar nano-tracks) around the straight ion trajectory, with marked modifications with respect to the virgin material, e.g., phase transition, amorphization, compaction, changes in physical or chemical properties. In the case of crystalline materials the most distinctive feature of swift heavy ion irradiation is the production of amorphous tracks embedded in the crystal. Lithium niobate is a relevant optical material that presents birefringence due to its anysotropic trigonal structure. The amorphous phase is certainly isotropic. In addition, its refractive index exhibits high contrast with those of the crystalline phase. This allows one to fabricate waveguides by swift ion irradiation with important technological relevance. From the mechanical point of view, the inclusion of an amorphous nano-track (with a density 15% lower than that of the crystal) leads to the generation of important stress/strain fields around the track. Eventually these fields are the origin of crack formation with fatal consequences for the integrity of the samples and the viability of the method for nano-track formation. For certain crystal cuts (X and Y), these fields are clearly anisotropic due to the crystal anisotropy. We have used finite element methods to calculate the stress/strain fields that appear around the ion-generated amorphous nano-tracks for a variety of ion energies and doses. A very remarkable feature for X cut-samples is that the maximum shear stress appears on preferential planes that form +/-45º with respect to the crystallographic planes. This leads to the generation of oriented surface cracks when the dose increases. The growth of the cracks along the anisotropic crystal has been studied by means of novel extended finite element methods, which include cracks as discontinuities. In this way we can study how the length and depth of a crack evolves as function of the ion dose. In this work we will show how the simulations compare with experiments and their application in materials modification by ion irradiation.

Crack mechanical failure in ceramic materials under ion irradiation: case of lithium niobate crystal

Swift heavy ion irradiation (ions with mass heavier than 15 and energy exceeding MeV/amu) transfer their energy mainly to the electronic system with small momentum transfer per collision. Therefore, they produce linear regions (columnar nano-tracks) around the straight ion trajectory, with marked modifications with respect to the virgin material, e.g., phase transition, amorphization, compaction, changes in physical or chemical properties. In the case of crystalline materials the most distinctive feature of swift heavy ion irradiation is the production of amorphous tracks embedded in the crystal. Lithium niobate is a relevant optical material that presents birefringence due to its anysotropic trigonal structure. The amorphous phase is certainly isotropic. In addition, its refractive index exhibits high contrast with those of the crystalline phase. This allows one to fabricate waveguides by swift ion irradiation with important technological relevance. From the mechanical point of view, the inclusion of an amorphous nano-track (with a density 15% lower than that of the crystal) leads to the generation of important stress/strain fields around the track. Eventually these fields are the origin of crack formation with fatal consequences for the integrity of the samples and the viability of the method for nano-track formation. For certain crystal cuts (X and Y), these fields are clearly anisotropic due to the crystal anisotropy. We have used finite element methods to calculate the stress/strain fields that appear around the ion- generated amorphous nano-tracks for a variety of ion energies and doses. A very remarkable feature for X cut-samples is that the maximum shear stress appears on preferential planes that form +/-45º with respect to the crystallographic planes. This leads to the generation of oriented surface cracks when the dose increases. The growth of the cracks along the anisotropic crystal has been studied by means of novel extended finite element methods, which include cracks as discontinuities. In this way we can study how the length and depth of a crack evolves as function of the ion dose. In this work we will show how the simulations compare with experiments and their application in materials modification by ion irradiation.

Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (XTH) overexpression affects growth and cell wall mechanics in etiolated Arabidopsis hypocotyls.

Growth and biomechanics of etiolated hypocotyls from Arabidopsis thaliana lines overexpressing xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase AtXTH18, AtXTH19, AtXTH20, and PttXET16-34 were studied. Overexpression of AtXTH18, AtXTH19, and AtXTH20 stimulated growth of hypocotyls, while PttXET16-34 overexpression did not show this effect. In vitro extension of frozen/thawed hypocotyls measured by a constant-load extensiometer started from a high-amplitude initial deformation followed by a slow time-dependent creep. Creep of growing XTH-overexpressing (OE) hypocotyls was more linear in time compared with the wild type at pH 5.0, reflecting their higher potential for long-term extension. XTH-OE plants deposited 65?84% more cell wall material per hypocotyl cross-sectional area than wild-type plants. As a result, their wall stress under each external load was lower than in the wild-type. Growing XTH-OE hypocotyls had higher values of initial deformation·stress?1 compared with the wild type. Plotting creep rates for each line under different loads against the respective wall stress values gave straight lines. Their slopes and intercepts with the abscissa correspond to ? (in vitro cell wall extensibility) and y (in vitro cell wall yield threshold) values characterizing cell wall material properties. The wall material in XTH-OE lines was more pliant than in the wild type due to lower y values. In contrast, the acid-induced wall extension in vitro resulted from increasing ? values. Thus, three factors contributed to the XTH-OE-stimulated growth in Arabidopsis hypocotyls: their more linear creep, higher values of initial deformation·stress?1, and lower y values.