Application of active heat pulse method with fiber optic temperature sensing for estimation of wetting bulbs and water distribution in drip emitters.

Through the use of the Distributed Fiber Optic Temperature Measurement (DFOT) method, it is possible to measure the temperature in small intervals (on the order of centimeters) for long distances (on the order of kilometers) with a high temporal frequency and great accuracy. The heat pulse method consists of applying a known amount of heat to the soil and monitoring the temperature evolution, which is primarily dependent on the soil moisture content. The use of both methods, which is called the active heat pulse method with fiber optic temperature sensing (AHFO), allows accurate soil moisture content measurements. In order to experimentally study the wetting patterns, i.e. shape, size, and the water distribution, from a drip irrigation emitter, a soil column of 0.5 m of diameter and 0.6 m high was built. Inside the column, a fiber optic cable with a stainless steel sheath was placed forming three concentric helixes of diameters 0.2 m, 0.4 m and 0.6 m, leading to a 148 measurement point network. Before, during, and after the irrigation event, heat pulses were performed supplying electrical power of 20 W/m to the steel. The soil moisture content was measured with a capacitive sensor in one location at depths of 0.1 m, 0.2 m, 0.3 m and 0.4 m during the irrigation. It was also determined by the gravimetric method in several locations and depths before and right after the irrigation. The emitter bulb dimensions and shape evolution was satisfactorily measured during infiltration. Furthermore, some bulb's characteristics difficult to predict (e.g. preferential flow) were detected. The results point out that the AHFO is a useful tool to estimate the wetting pattern of drip irrigation emitters in soil columns and show a high potential for its use in the field.

LED bulbs technical specification and testing procedure for solar home systems

The definition of technical specifications and the corresponding laboratory procedures are necessary steps in order to assure the quality of the devices prior to be installed in Solar Home Systems (SHS). To clarify and unify criteria a European project supported the development of the Universal Technical Standard for Solar Home Systems (UTSfSHS). Its principles were to generate simple and affordable technical requirements to be optimized in order to facilitate the implementation of tests with basic and simple laboratory tools even on the same SHS electrification program countries. These requirements cover the main aspects of this type of installations and its lighting chapter was developed based on the most used technology at that time: fluorescent tubes and CFLs. However, with the consolidation of the new LED solid state lighting devices, particular attention is being given to this matter and new procedures are required. In this work we develop a complete set of technical specifications and test procedures that have been designed within the frame of the UTSfSHS, based on an intense review of the scientific and technical publications related to LED lighting and their practical application. They apply to lamp reliability, performance and safety under normal, extreme and abnormal operating conditions as a simple but complete quality meter tool for any LED bulb.

Independent component analysis for the identification of sources of variation on an industrial nirs application

A Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) industrial application was developed by the LPF-Tagralia team, and transferred to a Spanish dehydrator company (Agrotécnica Extremeña S.L.) for the classification of dehydrator onion bulbs for breeding purposes. The automated operation of the system has allowed the classification of more than one million onion bulbs during seasons 2004 to 2008 (Table 1). The performance achieved by the original model (R2=0,65; SEC=2,28ºBrix) was enough for qualitative classification thanks to the broad range of variation of the initial population (18ºBrix). Nevertheless, a reduction of the classification performance of the model has been observed with the passing of seasons. One of the reasons put forward is the reduction of the range of variation that naturally occurs during a breeding process, the other is the variations in other parameters than the variable of interest but whose effects would probably be affecting the measurements [1]. This study points to the application of Independent Component Analysis (ICA) on this highly variable dataset coming from a NIRS industrial application for the identification of the different sources of variation present through seasons.

Fusarium proliferatum isolated from garlic in Spain: Identification, toxigenic potential and pathogenicity on related Allium species

Fusarium proliferatum has been reported on garlic in the Northwest USA, Spain and Serbia, causing water-soaked tan-colored lesions on cloves. In this work, Fusarium proliferatum was isolated from 300 symptomatic garlic bulbs. Morphological identification of Fusarium was confirmed using species-specific PCR assays and EF-1α sequencing. Confirmation of pathogenicity was conducted with eighteen isolates. Six randomly selected F. proliferatum isolates from garlic were tested for specific pathogenicity and screened for fusaric acid production. Additionally, pathogenicity of each F. proliferatum isolate was tested on healthy seedlings of onion (Allium cepa), leek (A. porrum), scallions (A. fistulosum), chives (A. schoenoprasum) and garlic (A. sativum). A disease severity index (DSI) was calculated as the mean severity on three plants of each species with four test replicates. Symptoms on onion and garlic plants were observed three weeks after inoculation. All isolates tested produced symptoms on all varieties inoculated. Inoculation of F. proliferatum isolates from diseased garlic onto other Allium species provided new information on host range and pathogenicity. The results demonstrated differences in susceptibility with respect to host species and cultivar. The F. proliferatum isolates tested all produced fusaric acid (FA); correlations between FA production and isolate pathogenicity are discussed. Additionally, all isolates showed the presence of the FUM1 gene suggesting the ability of Spanish isolates to produce fumonisins.

The effects of storage duration, temperature and cultivar on the severity of garlic clove rot caused by Fusarium proliferatum.

Diseases that affect garlic during storage can lead to severe economic losses for farmers worldwide. One causal agent of clove rot is Fusarium proliferatum. Here, the progress of clove rot caused by F. proliferatum and its dependence on different storage conditions and cultivar type were studied. The effect of temperature on mycelial growth, conidial viability, and fungal survival during garlic commercial storage was documented. Samples of 50 bulbs from a randomized field trial with three different clonal generations for purple garlic (F3, F4 and F5) and the F4 clonal generation for white garlic were labeled and stored for two months (short-term storage). In addition, another sample of the F5 clonal generation of purple garlic was stored for 6 months after harvest (long-term storage). The presence of the pathogen and the percentage of symptomatic cloves were evaluated. A notable difference in the rot severity index (RSI) of different garlic varieties was observed. In all studied cases, clove rot increased with storage time at 20 ◦ C, and the white garlic variety had a higher index of rot severity after two months of storage. Additionally, there were clear differences between the growth rates of F. proliferatum isolates. Studies conducted on the temperature responses of the pathogen propagules showed that expo- sure for at least 20 min at 50 ◦ C was highly effective in significantly reducing the viability of fungal conidia. Pathogenicity studies showed that the fungus is pathogenic in all commercial varieties. However, there were significant differences in varietal susceptibility between Chinese and white garlic type cultivars (81.84 ± 16.44% and 87.5 ± 23.19% symptomatic cloves, respectively) and purple cultivars (49.06 ± 13.42% symptomatic cloves)

VLC oriented energy efficient driver techniques

LEDs are substituting fluorescent and incandescent bulbs as illumination sources due to their low power consumption and long lifetime. Visible Light Communications (VLC) makes use of the LEDs short switching times to transmit information. Although LEDs switching speed is around Mbps range, higher speeds (hundred of Mbps) can be reached by using high bandwidth-efficiency modulation techniques. However, the use of these techniques requires a more complex driver which elevates drastically its power consumption. In this work an energy efficiency analysis of the different VLC modulation techniques and drivers is presented. Besides, the design of new schemes of VLC drivers is described.

Caracterización de LEDs mediante el uso y programación de espectrómetro

En la búsqueda de dispositivos cada vez más eficientes, de larga duración y bajo coste de mantenimiento en el mundo de la iluminación, aparecen los LEDs. Estos pequeños dispositivos van poco a poco sustituyendo a las bombillas tradicionales de incandescencia, tomando un papel cada vez más importante entre las fuentes de iluminación. Las primeras funciones prácticas que tuvieron estos LEDs fueron como indicadores, y sus primeros usos fueron en pantallas de calculadoras, electrodomésticos, etcétera, y más adelante, con el desarrollo de nuevos materiales, se empezaron a utilizar como dispositivos de iluminación. Ha sido en estos últimos años cuando se ha producido un salto cuantitativo gracias a la aparición de los POWER LED (LEDs de potencia) o de alto brillo, que son los que han permitido ampliar el uso de estos dispositivos como fuentes de iluminación en, por ejemplo, hogares, alumbrado público, e incluso llegando a sustituir los faros halógenos de vehículos por iluminación LED en algunos modelos. Es por ello que mientras su potencia lumínica va aumentado, su rango de utilización también lo hace. Para caracterizar estas fuentes lumínicas y otras a las que se les pueden dar diferentes usos, se desarrolla este proyecto mediante el análisis de su espectro. Para ello, además, se hará un análisis del resto de instrumentación necesaria que forma parte del proyecto. Este análisis abarca el estudio del propio espectrómetro tanto a nivel de hardware como de software, que modificaremos según los intereses del proyecto. También se estudiará la fibra óptica y el driver para controlar los dispositivos LEDs de potencia, así como los propios LEDs. Para ello se medirán las características de estos LEDs y se compararán con las facilitadas por el fabricante. ABSTRACT. Searching for more efficient, long lasting an low-maintenance devices in lighting world, LEDs appear. These small devices are gradually replacing traditional incandescent bulbs. LEDs are taking an increasingly important role between the light sources. At the begining they were only used as indicators and their first use were in screens calculators, appliances, etc., and later, with the development of new materials, were progressively used as lighting devices. Nowadays a great development has happened in LED lighting with the apparition of the POWER LED or high bright. Power LEDs are allowed to extend the use of these devices as lighting sources for example for homes, street lighting, and even coming to replace halogen headlights LED lighting in vehicles of some models. That's the reason the more their lighting power increases the more their use increases too. The aim of this project is to characterize these light sources and others that can be given different uses by analyzing its spectrum. Moreover, necessary instruments will also be analysed. This study involves both hardware and software spectrometer analysis itself by modifying its software according to the interests of the project. Furthermore, optical fiber and the driver to control LED power devices will be studied by measuring LEDs characteristics and comparing with those provided by the manufacturer.

Respuesta fisiológica, productiva y cualitativa del cultivar Syrah (Vitis vinifera L) con diferentes frecuencias de riego y densidad de goteros en suelos arcillosos

La disponibilidad hídrica es uno de los principales factores que determinan el rendimiento del viñedo en muchas regiones vitícolas, por lo que sus consecuencias han sido ampliamente estudiadas. Sin embargo, para una cantidad de agua de riego determinada, otros aspectos como la frecuencia de aplicación, o la combinación entre el caudal de los goteros y la distancia entre los mismos (es decir, el patrón de distribución de agua en el suelo), pueden jugar un papel relevante, pero estos factores han sido poco estudiados. El objetivo de este trabajo ha sido evaluar las implicaciones agronómicas y fisiológicas de dos frecuencias de riego (IrrF, cada 2 y 4 días) y dos patrones de distribución de agua (DisP, goteros de 2 L h-1 separados 0,6 m vs. goteros de 4 L h-1 separados 1,2 m). El experimento se llevó a cabo durante cuatro temporadas consecutivas en un viñedo cv. Syrah con un suelo arcilloso en el centro de España, y los dos factores fueron evaluados bajo dos condiciones de disponibilidad hídrica (Baja: 20% de ETo y Media: 40% de ETo). El efecto de la frecuencia de riego y el patrón de distribución de agua en la respuesta agronómica del cv. Syrah se ha estudiado en el capítulo 1. La frecuencia de riego y el patrón de distribución de agua en el suelo afectaron a algunos aspectos de los componentes de rendimiento y desarrollo vegetativo en las dos condiciones de disponibilidad hídrica, aunque los efectos observados no fueron los mismos todos los años. Los efectos fueron más evidentes para IrrF en condiciones de baja disponibilidad hídrica y para DisP en condiciones de disponibilidad hídrica media. Dos de los cuatro años del experimento, el pasar de frecuencia de riego de 2 días a 4 días causó un incremento medio de rendimiento del 20% para la situación de baja disponibilidad hídrica. La textura del suelo, sin duda ha condicionado los resultados obtenidos en los tratamientos regados con el 20% de la ETo, ya que regar cada dos días implicaba la aplicación de pequeñas cantidades de agua y se formaban bulbos de riego superficiales, probablemente favoreciendo las pérdidas por evaporación. En el capítulo 2, se ha analizado el efecto de la frecuencia de riego y del patrón de distribución de agua en el estado hídrico de la planta y el intercambio gaseoso a nivel de hoja con el fin de explicar las diferencias observadas en la respuesta agronómica. En lo que respecta a la frecuencia de riego, en condiciones de baja disponibilidad hídrica, las plantas regadas cada 4 días (plantas 4d), mostraron mayores tasas de asimilación neta y conductancia estomática que las plantas regadas cada 2 días (plantas 2d), lo que es consistente con la hipótesis de que con la frecuencia de riego de 2 días se produjo una pérdida de eficiencia del uso del agua, probablemente debido a una mayor evaporación como consecuencia del hecho de que el volumen de suelo mojado creado era pequeño y cerca de la superficie. En condiciones de disponibilidad hídrica media, las diferencias en el intercambio gaseoso a nivel de hoja fueron mucho más pequeñas. Al comienzo del verano cada frecuencia de riego se comportó mejor uno de los días de medida, compensando al final del ciclo de riego de 4 días. Sin embargo, a medida que avanzó el verano y el déficit de agua se hizo más alto, las diferencias significativas aparecieron sólo en el 'día 4' del ciclo de riego, cuando las plantas 2d se comportaron mejor que las plantas regadas 4d que llevaban tres días sin regarse. Estas diferencias fisiológicas fueron menores que en condiciones de baja disponibilidad hídrica y al parecer no suficientes para afectar el comportamiento agronómico. En cuanto al patrón de distribución de agua, el efecto fue poco significativo, pero la mayor densidad de goteros tendió a presentar un mayor intercambio gaseoso a nivel de hoja, especialmente a media mañana. El efecto fue más importante para las condiciones de disponibilidad hídrica media. En el capítulo 3, se han comparado las relaciones entre el intercambio gaseoso a nivel de hoja, el estado hídrico y la demanda atmosférica, con el fin de explicar los cambios en la intensidad de la respuesta fisiológica observados en el Capítulo 2. No se han encontrado diferencias en dichas relaciones para el patrón de distribución de agua, por lo que sólo se ha analizado el efecto de la frecuencia de riego. El estudio se ha centrado fundamentalmente en si las plantas mostraron una respuesta fisiológica diferente a los cambios en el estado hídrico y en la demanda atmosférica según el tiempo transcurrido desde el último riego. Las diferencias observadas explican los resultados obtenidos en los capítulos anteriores, y sugieren la existencia de procesos de aclimatación vinculados a la frecuencia de riego y a la disponibilidad hídrica. Las plantas bajo condiciones de baja disponibilidad hídrica se mostraron más aclimatadas al estrés hídrico que aquellas en condiciones de disponibilidad hídrica media. La frecuencia de riego afectó claramente la relación entre los parámetros de intercambio gaseoso a nivel de hoja, el estado hídrico de la planta y las condiciones atmosféricas, y junto con la cantidad de agua aplicada tuvo implicaciones en el desarrollo de mecanismos de aclimatación que afectaron a la respuesta fisiológica de la planta, afectando a la eficiencia del riego. ABSTRACT Water availability is one of the major factors that determine vineyard performance in many grape growing regions, so its implications have been widely studied before. However, for a given irrigation water amount, other aspects such as application frequency, or emitter spacing and flow rate (i.e., distribution pattern), may play a relevant role, but these factors have been scarcely studied. The aim of this work was to evaluate the agronomic and physiological implications of two irrigation frequencies (IrrF, every 2 and 4 days) and two water distribution patterns (DisP, 2 L h−1 emitters every 0.6 m vs. 4 L h−1 emitters every 1.2 m). The experiment was carried out during four consecutive seasons in a cv. Syrah vineyard with a clay soil in central Spain, and the two factors were evaluated under two water availability conditions (LOW WA: 20% of ETo and MEDIUM WA: 40% of ETo). The effect of irrigation frequency and water distribution pattern on the agronomical response of cv. Syrah was studied in Chapter 1. IrrF and DisP affected some aspects of vegetative development and yield components under both water availability conditions, although the effects observed were not the same every year. The effects were more evident for IrrF under low water availability and for DisP under medium water availability. Two out of the four years of the experiment, the change of irrigation frequency from 2 days to 4 days promoted an average yield increase of 20% for the LOW WA situation. Soil texture certainly conditioned the results obtained under LOW WA conditions, since high frequency irrigation implied applying small amounts of water that resulted in limited superficial water bulbs, which probably favored water evaporation. In Chapter 2, the effect of irrigation frequency and water distribution pattern on plant water status and leaf gas exchange was analyzed to explain the differences observed in the agronomical response. Concerning irrigation frequency, under LOW WA conditions, applying irrigation every 4 days, resulted in higher net assimilation rates and stomatal conductance than doing it every 2 days, supporting the hypothesis that the latter frequency resulted in a water use efficiency loss, probably due to higher evaporation as a consequence of the fact the wetted soil volume created was small and close to the surface. Under MEDIUM WA conditions, differences in leaf gas exchange were much smaller. At the beginning of the summer each irrigation frequency behaved better one of the measurements days, compensating at the end of the 4-day irrigation cycle. However, as the summer progressed and water deficit became higher, significant differences appeared only on ‘day 4’ of the irrigation cycle, when 2d plants behaved better than 4d plants. These physiological differences were smaller than under LOW WA conditions and apparently not sufficient to affect agronomical performance. Regarding water distribution pattern, the effect was less significant but the closest emitter spacing resulted in general terms in a higher leaf gas exchange, especially at midmorning. The effect was more noticeable for MEDIUM WA conditions. In Chapter 3, the relationships between leaf gas exchange and leaf water status and atmospheric demand were compared to explain the changes in the intensity of the physiological response observed in Chapter 2. No differences were found in the relationships for water distribution pattern, so only the effect of irrigation frequency was analyzed focusing on whether the plants have a different physiological response to changes in water status and atmospheric demand according to the time elapsed since the last irrigation. Differences observed in the relationships explained the results obtained in the previous chapters, and point at the occurrence of acclimation processes linked to irrigation frequency and to water availability. Plants under LOW WATER AVAILABILITY conditions seemed to be more acclimated to water stress than those under MEDIUM WATER AVAILABILITY conditions. Irrigation frequency clearly affected the relationship between leaf gas exchange parameters, plant water status and atmospheric conditions, and together with the amount of water applied had implications in the development of acclimation mechanisms that affected plant physiological response, thus affecting irrigation efficiency.