Building the qualification and a skill development program within the ENEN-III European Project

The ENEN III project covers the structuring, organization, coordination and implementation of training schemes in cooperation with local, national and international training organizations, to provide training to professionals active in nuclear organizations or their contractors and sub-contractors. The training schemes provide a portfolio of courses, training sessions, seminars, and workshops for continuous learning for upgrading knowledge and developing skills. The training schemes allow individuals to acquire qualifications and skills, as required by the specific positions in the nuclear sector which will be documented in a training passport. The essence of such passport is to be recognized within the EU by the whole nuclear sector which provides mobility to the individual looking for employment and an EU wide recruitment field for the nuclear employers.

Smart and sustainable public transport systems through improving level and quality of service

Buses are considered a slow, low comfort and low reliability transport system, thus its negative and por image. In the framework of the 3iBS project (2012), several examples of innovative and/or effective solutions regarding the Level of Service (LoS) were analysed aiming to provide operators, practitioners and policy makers with a set of Good Practice Guidelines to strengthen the competitiveness of the bus in the urban environment. The identification of the key indicators regarding vehicles, infrastructure and operation was possible through the analysis of a set of case studies -among which Barcelona (Spain), Cagliari (Italy), London (United Kingdom), Paris and Nantes (France). A cross comparison between the case studies was carried out for contrasting the level of achievement of the different criteria considered. The information provided on Regulatory, Financial and Technical issues allows the identification of a number of specific factors influencing the implementation of a high quality transport scheme, and set the basis for the elaboration of a set of Guidelines for the implementation of an intelligent, innovative and integrated bus system, including the main barriers to be tackled.

Reconstructing the Timing and Dispersion Routes of HIV-1 Subtype B Epidemics in The Caribbean and Central America: A Phylogenetic Story.

The Caribbean and Central America are among the regions with highest HIV-1B prevalence worldwide. Despite of this high virus burden, little is known about the timing and the migration patterns of HIV-1B in these regions. Migration is one of the major processes shaping the genetic structure of virus populations. Thus, reconstruction of epidemiological network may contribute to understand HIV-1B evolution and reduce virus prevalence. We have investigated the spatio-temporal dynamics of the HIV-1B epidemic in The Caribbean and Central America using 1,610 HIV-1B partial pol sequences from 13 Caribbean and 5 Central American countries. Timing of HIV-1B introduction and virus evolutionary rates, as well as the spatial genetic structure of the HIV-1B populations and the virus migration patterns were inferred. Results revealed that in The Caribbean and Central America most of the HIV-1B variability was generated since the 80 s. At odds with previous data suggesting that Haiti was the origin of the epidemic in The Caribbean, our reconstruction indicated that the virus could have been disseminated from Puerto Rico and Antigua. These two countries connected two distinguishable migration areas corresponding to the (mainly Spanish-colonized) Easter and (mainly British-colonized) Western islands, which indicates that virus migration patterns are determined by geographical barriers and by the movement of human populations among culturally related countries. Similar factors shaped the migration of HIV-1B in Central America. The HIV-1B population was significantly structured according to the country of origin, and the genetic diversity in each country was associated with the virus prevalence in both regions, which suggests that virus populations evolve mainly through genetic drift. Thus, our work contributes to the understanding of HIV-1B evolution and dispersion pattern in the Americas, and its relationship with the geography of the area and the movements of human populations.

Smart aeronautical structures: development and experimental validation of a structural health monitoring system for damage detection

En muchas ��reas de la ingenier��a, la integridad y confiabilidad de las estructuras son aspectos de extrema importancia. Estos son controlados mediante el adecuado conocimiento de danos existentes. T��picamente, alcanzar el nivel de conocimiento necesario que permita caracterizar la integridad estructural implica el uso de t��cnicas de ensayos no destructivos. Estas t��cnicas son a menudo costosas y consumen mucho tiempo. En la actualidad, muchas industrias buscan incrementar la confiabilidad de las estructuras que emplean. Mediante el uso de t��cnicas de ��ltima tecnolog��a es posible monitorizar las estructuras y en algunos casos, es factible detectar da��os incipientes que pueden desencadenar en fallos catastr��ficos. Desafortunadamente, a medida que la complejidad de las estructuras, los componentes y sistemas incrementa, el riesgo de la aparici��n de da��os y fallas tambi��n incrementa. Al mismo tiempo, la detecci��n de dichas fallas y defectos se torna m��s compleja. En a��os recientes, la industria aeroespacial ha realizado grandes esfuerzos para integrar los sensores dentro de las estructuras, adem��s de desarrollar algoritmos que permitan determinar la integridad estructural en tiempo real. Esta filosof��a ha sido llamada ���Structural Health Monitoring��� (o ���Monitorizaci��n de Salud Estructural��� en espa��ol) y este tipo de estructuras han recibido el nombre de ���Smart Structures��� (o ���Estructuras Inteligentes��� en espa��ol). Este nuevo tipo de estructuras integran materiales, sensores, actuadores y algoritmos para detectar, cuantificar y localizar da��os dentro de ellas mismas. Una novedosa metodolog��a para detecci��n de da��os en estructuras se propone en este trabajo. La metodolog��a est�� basada en mediciones de deformaci��n y consiste en desarrollar t��cnicas de reconocimiento de patrones en el campo de deformaciones. Estas ��ltimas, basadas en PCA (An��lisis de Componentes Principales) y otras t��cnicas de reducci��n dimensional. Se propone el uso de Redes de difracci��n de Bragg y medidas distribuidas como sensores de deformaci��n. La metodolog��a se valid�� mediante pruebas a escala de laboratorio y pruebas a escala real con estructuras complejas. Los efectos de las condiciones de carga variables fueron estudiados y diversos experimentos fueron realizados para condiciones de carga est��ticas y din��micas, demostrando que la metodolog��a es robusta ante condiciones de carga desconocidas. ABSTRACT In many engineering fields, the integrity and reliability of the structures are extremely important aspects. They are controlled by the adequate knowledge of existing damages. Typically, achieving the level of knowledge necessary to characterize the structural integrity involves the usage of nondestructive testing techniques. These are often expensive and time consuming. Nowadays, many industries look to increase the reliability of the structures used. By using leading edge techniques it is possible to monitoring these structures and in some cases, detect incipient damage that could trigger catastrophic failures. Unfortunately, as the complexity of the structures, components and systems increases, the risk of damages and failures also increases. At the same time, the detection of such failures and defects becomes more difficult. In recent years, the aerospace industry has done great efforts to integrate the sensors within the structures and, to develop algorithms for determining the structural integrity in real time. The ���philosophy��� has being called ���Structural Health Monitoring��� and these structures have been called ���smart structures���. These new types of structures integrate materials, sensors, actuators and algorithms to detect, quantify and locate damage within itself. A novel methodology for damage detection in structures is proposed. The methodology is based on strain measurements and consists in the development of strain field pattern recognition techniques. The aforementioned are based on PCA (Principal Component Analysis) and other dimensional reduction techniques. The use of fiber Bragg gratings and distributed sensing as strain sensors is proposed. The methodology have been validated by using laboratory scale tests and real scale tests with complex structures. The effects of the variable load conditions were studied and several experiments were performed for static and dynamic load conditions, demonstrating that the methodology is robust under unknown load conditions.

High power beam dump project for the accelerator prototype LIPAc: Cooling design and analysis

En el campo de la fusi��n nuclear y desarroll��ndose en paralelo a ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor), el proyecto IFMIF (International Fusion Material Irradiation Facility) se enmarca dentro de las actividades complementarias encaminadas a solucionar las barreras tecnol��gicas que a��n plantea la fusi��n. En concreto IFMIF es una instalaci��n de irradiaci��n cuya misi��n es caracterizar materiales resistentes a condiciones extremas como las esperadas en los futuros reactores de fusi��n como DEMO (DEMOnstration power plant). Consiste de dos aceleradores de deuterones que proporcionan un haz de 125 mA y 40 MeV cada uno, que al colisionar con un blanco de litio producen un flujo neutr��nico intenso (1017 neutrones/s) con un espectro similar al de los neutrones de fusi��n [1], [2]. Dicho flujo neutr��nico es empleado para irradiar los diferentes materiales candidatos a ser empleados en reactores de fusi��n, y las muestras son posteriormente examinadas en la llamada instalaci��n de post-irradiaci��n. Como primer paso en tan ambicioso proyecto, una fase de validaci��n y dise��o llamada IFMIFEVEDA (Engineering Validation and Engineering Design Activities) se encuentra actualmente en desarrollo. Una de las actividades contempladas en esta fase es la construcci��n y operaci��n de una acelarador prototipo llamado LIPAc (Linear IFMIF Prototype Accelerator). Se trata de un acelerador de deuterones de alta intensidad id��ntico a la parte de baja energ��a de los aceleradores de IFMIF. Los componentes del LIPAc, que ser�� instalado en Jap��n, son suministrados por diferentes pa��ses europeos. El acelerador proporcionar�� un haz continuo de deuterones de 9 MeV con una potencia de 1.125 MW que tras ser caracterizado con diversos instrumentos deber�� pararse de forma segura. Para ello se requiere un sistema denominado bloque de parada (Beam Dump en ingl��s) que absorba la energ��a del haz y la transfiera a un sumidero de calor. Espa��a tiene el compromiso de suministrar este componente y CIEMAT (Centro de Investigaciones Energ��ticas Medioambientales y Tecnol��gicas) es responsable de dicha tarea. La pieza central del bloque de parada, donde se para el haz de iones, es un cono de cobre con un ��ngulo de 3.5o, 2.5 m de longitud y 5 mm de espesor. Dicha pieza est�� refrigerada por agua que fluye en su superficie externa por el canal que se forma entre el cono de cobre y otra pieza conc��ntrica con ��ste. Este es el marco en que se desarrolla la presente tesis, cuyo objeto es el dise��o del sistema de refrigeraci��n del bloque de parada del LIPAc. El dise��o se ha realizado utilizando un modelo simplificado unidimensional. Se han obtenido los par��metros del agua (presi��n, caudal, p��rdida de carga) y la geometr��a requerida en el canal de refrigeraci��n (anchura, rugosidad) para garantizar la correcta refrigeraci��n del bloque de parada. Se ha comprobado que el dise��o permite variaciones del haz respecto a la situaci��n nominal siendo el flujo cr��tico calor��fico al menos 2 veces superior al nominal. Se han realizado asimismo simulaciones fluidodin��micas 3D con ANSYS-CFX en aquellas zonas del canal de refrigeraci��n que lo requieren. El bloque de parada se activar�� como consecuencia de la interacci��n del haz de part��culas lo que impide cualquier cambio o reparaci��n una vez comenzada la operaci��n del acelerador. Por ello el dise��o ha de ser muy robusto y todas las hip��tesis utilizadas en la realizaci��n de ��ste deben ser cuidadosamente comprobadas. Gran parte del esfuerzo de la tesis se centra en la estimaci��n del coeficiente de transferencia de calor que es determinante en los resultados obtenidos, y que se emplea adem��s como condici��n de contorno en los c��lculos mec��nicos. Para ello por un lado se han buscado correlaciones cuyo rango de aplicabilidad sea adecuado para las condiciones del bloque de parada (canal anular, diferencias de temperatura agua-pared de decenas de grados). En un segundo paso se han comparado los coeficientes de pel��cula obtenidos a partir de la correlaci��n seleccionada (Petukhov-Gnielinski) con los que se deducen de simulaciones fluidodin��micas, obteniendo resultados satisfactorios. Por ��ltimo se ha realizado una validaci��n experimental utilizando un prototipo y un circuito hidr��ulico que proporciona un flujo de agua con los par��metros requeridos en el bloque de parada. Tras varios intentos y mejoras en el experimento se han obtenido los coeficientes de pel��cula para distintos caudales y potencias de calentamiento. Teniendo en cuenta la incertidumbre de las medidas, los valores experimentales concuerdan razonablemente bien (en el rango de 15%) con los deducidos de las correlaciones. Por motivos radiol��gicos es necesario controlar la calidad del agua de refrigeraci��n y minimizar la corrosi��n del cobre. Tras un estudio bibliogr��fico se identificaron los par��metros del agua m��s adecuados (conductividad, pH y concentraci��n de ox��geno disuelto). Como parte de la tesis se ha realizado asimismo un estudio de la corrosi��n del circuito de refrigeraci��n del bloque de parada con el doble fin de determinar si puede poner en riesgo la integridad del componente, y de obtener una estimaci��n de la velocidad de corrosi��n para dimensionar el sistema de purificaci��n del agua. Se ha utilizado el c��digo TRACT (TRansport and ACTivation code) adapt��ndalo al caso del bloque de parada, para lo cual se trabaj�� con el responsable (Panos Karditsas) del c��digo en Culham (UKAEA). Los resultados confirman que la corrosi��n del cobre en las condiciones seleccionadas no supone un problema. La Tesis se encuentra estructurada de la siguiente manera: En el primer cap��tulo se realiza una introducci��n de los proyectos IFMIF y LIPAc dentro de los cuales se enmarca esta Tesis. Adem��s se describe el bloque de parada, siendo el dise��o del sistema de rerigeraci��n de ��ste el principal objetivo de la Tesis. En el segundo y tercer cap��tulo se realiza un resumen de la base te��rica as�� como de las diferentes herramientas empleadas en el dise��o del sistema de refrigeraci��n. El cap��tulo cuarto presenta los resultados del relativos al sistema de refrigeraci��n. Tanto los obtenidos del estudio unidimensional, como los obtenidos de las simulaciones fluidodin��micas 3D mediante el empleo del c��digo ANSYS-CFX. En el quinto cap��tulo se presentan los resultados referentes al an��lisis de corrosi��n del circuito de refrigeraci��n del bloque de parada. El cap��tulo seis se centra en la descripci��n del montaje experimental para la obtenci��n de los valores de p��rdida de carga y coeficiente de transferencia del calor. Asimismo se presentan los resultados obtenidos en dichos experimentos. Finalmente encontramos un cap��tulo de ap��ndices en el que se describen una serie de experimentos llevados a cabo como pasos intermedios en la obtenci��n del resultado experimental del coeficiente de pel��cula. Tambi��n se presenta el c��digo inform��tico empleado para el an��lisis unidimensional del sistema de refrigeraci��n del bloque de parada llamado CHICA (Cooling and Heating Interaction and Corrosion Analysis). ABSTRACT In the nuclear fusion field running in parallel to ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) as one of the complementary activities headed towards solving the technological barriers, IFMIF (International Fusion Material Irradiation Facility) project aims to provide an irradiation facility to qualify advanced materials resistant to extreme conditions like the ones expected in future fusion reactors like DEMO (DEMOnstration Power Plant). IFMIF consists of two constant wave deuteron accelerators delivering a 125 mA and 40 MeV beam each that will collide on a lithium target producing an intense neutron fluence (1017 neutrons/s) with a similar spectra to that of fusion neutrons [1], [2]. This neutron flux is employed to irradiate the different material candidates to be employed in the future fusion reactors, and the samples examined after irradiation at the so called post-irradiative facilities. As a first step in such an ambitious project, an engineering validation and engineering design activity phase called IFMIF-EVEDA (Engineering Validation and Engineering Design Activities) is presently going on. One of the activities consists on the construction and operation of an accelerator prototype named LIPAc (Linear IFMIF Prototype Accelerator). It is a high intensity deuteron accelerator identical to the low energy part of the IFMIF accelerators. The LIPAc components, which will be installed in Japan, are delivered by different european countries. The accelerator supplies a 9 MeV constant wave beam of deuterons with a power of 1.125 MW, which after being characterized by different instruments has to be stopped safely. For such task a beam dump to absorb the beam energy and take it to a heat sink is needed. Spain has the compromise of delivering such device and CIEMAT (Centro de Investigaciones Energ��ticas Medioambientales y Tecnol��gicas) is responsible for such task. The central piece of the beam dump, where the ion beam is stopped, is a copper cone with an angle of 3.5o, 2.5 m long and 5 mm width. This part is cooled by water flowing on its external surface through the channel formed between the copper cone and a concentric piece with the latter. The thesis is developed in this realm, and its objective is designing the LIPAc beam dump cooling system. The design has been performed employing a simplified one dimensional model. The water parameters (pressure, flow, pressure loss) and the required annular channel geometry (width, rugoisty) have been obtained guaranteeing the correct cooling of the beam dump. It has been checked that the cooling design allows variations of the the beam with respect to the nominal position, being the CHF (Critical Heat Flux) at least twice times higher than the nominal deposited heat flux. 3D fluid dynamic simulations employing ANSYS-CFX code in the beam dump cooling channel sections which require a more thorough study have also been performed. The beam dump will activateasaconsequenceofthe deuteron beam interaction, making impossible any change or maintenance task once the accelerator operation has started. Hence the design has to be very robust and all the hypotheses employed in the design mustbecarefully checked. Most of the work in the thesis is concentrated in estimating the heat transfer coefficient which is decisive in the obtained results, and is also employed as boundary condition in the mechanical analysis. For such task, correlations which applicability range is the adequate for the beam dump conditions (annular channel, water-surface temperature differences of tens of degrees) have been compiled. In a second step the heat transfer coefficients obtained from the selected correlation (Petukhov- Gnielinski) have been compared with the ones deduced from the 3D fluid dynamic simulations, obtaining satisfactory results. Finally an experimental validation has been performed employing a prototype and a hydraulic circuit that supplies a flow with the requested parameters in the beam dump. After several tries and improvements in the experiment, the heat transfer coefficients for different flows and heating powers have been obtained. Considering the uncertainty in the measurements the experimental values agree reasonably well (in the order of 15%) with the ones obtained from the correlations. Due to radiological reasons the quality of the cooling water must be controlled, hence minimizing the copper corrosion. After performing a bibligraphic study the most adequate water parameters were identified (conductivity, pH and dissolved oxygen concentration). As part of this thesis a corrosion study of the beam dump cooling circuit has been performed with the double aim of determining if corrosion can pose a risk for the copper beam dump , and obtaining an estimation of the corrosion velocitytodimension the water purification system. TRACT code(TRansport and ACTivation) has been employed for such study adapting the code for the beam dump case. For such study a collaboration with the code responsible (Panos Karditsas) at Culham (UKAEA) was established. The work developed in this thesis has supposed the publication of three articles in JCR journals (���Journal of Nuclear Materials��� y ���Fusion Engineering and Design���), as well as presentations in more than four conferences and relevant meetings.

Business models in the Smart Grid: challenges, opportunities and proposals for prosumer profitability.

Considering that non-renewable energy resources are dwindling, the smart grid turns out to be one of the most promising and compelling systems for the future of energy. Not only does it combine efficient energy consumption with avant-garde technologies related to renewable energies, but it is also capable of providing several beneficial utilities, such as power monitoring and data provision. When smart grid end users turn into prosumers, they become arguably the most important value creators within the smart grid and a decisive agent of change in terms of electricity usage. There is a plethora of research and development areas related to the smart grid that can be exploited for new business opportunities, thus spawning another branch of the so-called ?green economy? focused on turning smart energy usage into a profitable business. This paper deals with emerging business models for smart grid prosumers, their strengths and weaknesses and puts forward new prosumer-oriented business models, along with their value propositions.

Los agentes de la edificaci��n desde el punto de vista de la Gesti��n Integral de Proyectos: diferencias y semejanzas entre la Legislaci��n Espa��ola y los Est��ndares Internacionales = Expert agents in the Global Development of a building project: differences and similarities between Spanish and International contexts.

Desde los a��os 60, crece en Europa y Estados Unidos la preocupaci��n y la necesidad de mejorar los procesos de gerencia de los proyectos de construcci��n al volverse estos m��s complejos. Esto ha llevado a la continua aparici��n de nuevos profesionales desde la fecha citada hasta nuestros d��as. De ah�� la complejidad de conocer las cualidades de cada uno de ellos, as�� como las funciones a realizar o la formaci��n que deben tener para poder desarrollar el puesto de trabajo seg��n el papel que desempe��an para cada actividad. Muchos agentes son los que pueden intervenir en la edificaci��n, muchas son las funciones que llevan a cabo estos agentes, muchas son las habilidades que se necesitan para realizar estas misiones, y una buena gesti��n de la edificaci��n es la que hay que desarrollar para lograr el gran ��xito. El presente trabajo fin de m��ster, dirigido a arquitectos, arquitectos t��cnicos, ingenieros, abogados, economistas y todos los profesionales del sector inmobiliario y de la construcci��n, trata de resolver todas aquellas dudas sobre los diferentes sujetos que estar��n presentes desde la definici��n del proyecto en la fase inicial hasta el final de la obra, pasando por las fases de pre-construcci��n, construcci��n y post-construcci��n. (ENGLISH VERSION) Since the 1960s, most construction projects have become more and more complex, and new concerns and necessities related to the management of a project have been on the rise in Europe and in the United States. Thence, the need for more specialized professionals in the field has become a common fact, as well as the inclusion of new curricular subjects in most building engineering studies. There are different agents that play a relevant role in a building project; some of them are expected to perform a highly specialized set of functions that require specific management skills for the work to be successful. This research work���aimed mainly at engineers, quantity surveyors, lawyers, economists, real estate and construction professionals���shows the major implications of the building construction process including both pre-tender/construction and post-tender/construction stages as far as the main expert agents are involved.

M��todo experimental para la caracterizaci��n de las diferentes tecnolog��as de integraci��n arquitect��nica de la energ��a fotovoltaica en condiciones de funcionamiento real = Experimental method for characterization of several building integrated photovoltaic technologies under real working conditions

Hoy en d��a, el proceso de un proyecto sostenible persigue realizar edificios de elevadas prestaciones que son, energ��ticamente eficientes, saludables y econ��micamente viables utilizando sabiamente recursos renovables para minimizar el impacto sobre el medio ambiente reduciendo, en lo posible, la demanda de energ��a, lo que se ha convertido, en la ��ltima d��cada, en una prioridad. La Directiva 2002/91/CE "Eficiencia Energ��tica de los Edificios" (y actualizaciones posteriores) ha establecido el marco regulatorio general para el c��lculo de los requerimientos energ��ticos m��nimos. Desde esa fecha, el objetivo de cumplir con las nuevas directivas y protocolos ha conducido las pol��ticas energ��ticas de los distintos pa��ses en la misma direcci��n, centr��ndose en la necesidad de aumentar la eficiencia energ��tica en los edificios, la adopci��n de medidas para reducir el consumo, y el fomento de la generaci��n de energ��a a trav��s de fuentes renovables. Los edificios de energ��a nula o casi nula (ZEB, Zero Energy Buildings �� NZEB, Net Zero Energy Buildings) deber��n convertirse en un est��ndar de la construcci��n en Europa y con el fin de equilibrar el consumo de energ��a, adem��s de reducirlo al m��nimo, los edificios necesariamente deber��n ser autoproductores de energ��a. Por esta raz��n, la envolvente del edifico y en particular las fachadas son importantes para el logro de estos objetivos y la tecnolog��a fotovoltaica puede tener un papel preponderante en este reto. Para promover el uso de la tecnolog��a fotovoltaica, diferentes programas de investigaci��n internacionales fomentan y apoyan soluciones para favorecer la integraci��n completa de ��stos sistemas como elementos arquitect��nicos y constructivos, los sistemas BIPV (Building Integrated Photovoltaic), sobre todo considerando el pr��ximo futuro hacia edificios NZEB. Se ha constatado en este estudio que todav��a hay una falta de informaci��n ��til disponible sobre los sistemas BIPV, a pesar de que el mercado ofrece una interesante gama de soluciones, en algunos aspectos comparables a los sistemas tradicionales de construcci��n. Pero por el momento, la falta estandarizaci��n y de una regulaci��n armonizada, adem��s de la falta de informaci��n en las hojas de datos t��cnicos (todav��a no comparables con las mismas que est��n disponibles para los materiales de construcci��n), hacen dif��cil evaluar adecuadamente la conveniencia y factibilidad de utilizar los componentes BIPV como parte integrante de la envolvente del edificio. Organizaciones internacionales est��n trabajando para establecer las normas adecuadas y procedimientos de prueba y ensayo para comprobar la seguridad, viabilidad y fiabilidad estos sistemas. Sin embargo, hoy en d��a, no hay reglas espec��ficas para la evaluaci��n y caracterizaci��n completa de un componente fotovoltaico de integraci��n arquitect��nica de acuerdo con el Reglamento Europeo de Productos de la Construcci��n, CPR 305/2011. Los productos BIPV, como elementos de construcci��n, deben cumplir con diferentes aspectos pr��cticos como resistencia mec��nica y la estabilidad; integridad estructural; seguridad de utilizaci��n; protecci��n contra el clima (lluvia, nieve, viento, granizo), el fuego y el ruido, aspectos que se han convertido en requisitos esenciales, en la perspectiva de obtener productos ambientalmente sostenibles, saludables, eficientes energ��ticamente y econ��micamente asequibles. Por lo tanto, el m��dulo / sistema BIPV se convierte en una parte multifuncional del edificio no s��lo para ser f��sica y t��cnicamente "integrado", adem��s de ser una oportunidad innovadora del dise��o. Las normas IEC, de uso com��n en Europa para certificar m��dulos fotovoltaicos -IEC 61215 e IEC 61646 cualificaci��n de dise��o y homologaci��n del tipo para m��dulos fotovoltaicos de uso terrestre, respectivamente para m��dulos fotovoltaicos de silicio cristalino y de l��mina delgada- atestan ��nicamente la potencia del m��dulo fotovoltaico y dan fe de su fiabilidad por un per��odo de tiempo definido, certificando una disminuci��n de potencia dentro de unos l��mites. Existe tambi��n un est��ndar, en parte en desarrollo, el IEC 61853 (���Ensayos de rendimiento de m��dulos fotovoltaicos y evaluaci��n energ��tica") cuyo objetivo es la b��squeda de procedimientos y metodolog��as de prueba apropiados para calcular el rendimiento energ��tico de los m��dulos fotovoltaicos en diferentes condiciones clim��ticas. Sin embargo, no existen ensayos normalizados en las condiciones espec��ficas de la instalaci��n (p. ej. sistemas BIPV de fachada). Eso significa que es imposible conocer las efectivas prestaciones de estos sistemas y las condiciones ambientales que se generan en el interior del edificio. La potencia nominal de pico Wp, de un m��dulo fotovoltaico identifica la m��xima potencia el��ctrica que ��ste puede generar bajo condiciones est��ndares de medida (STC: irradici��n 1000 W/m2, 25 ��C de temperatura del m��dulo y distribuci��n espectral, AM 1,5) caracterizando el��ctricamente el m��dulo PV en condiciones espec��ficas con el fin de poder comparar los diferentes m��dulos y tecnolog��as. El vatio pico (Wp por su abreviatura en ingl��s) es la medida de la potencia nominal del m��dulo PV y no es suficiente para evaluar el comportamiento y producci��n del panel en t��rminos de vatios hora en las diferentes condiciones de operaci��n, y tampoco permite predecir con convicci��n la eficiencia y el comportamiento energ��tico de un determinado m��dulo en condiciones ambientales y de instalaci��n reales. Un adecuado elemento de integraci��n arquitect��nica de fachada, por ejemplo, deber��a tener en cuenta propiedades t��rmicas y de aislamiento, factores como la transparencia para permitir ganancias solares o un buen control solar si es necesario, aspectos vinculados y dependientes en gran medida de las condiciones clim��ticas y del nivel de confort requerido en el edificio, lo que implica una necesidad de adaptaci��n a cada contexto espec��fico para obtener el mejor resultado. Sin embargo, la influencia en condiciones reales de operaci��n de las diferentes soluciones fotovoltaicas de integraci��n, en el consumo de energ��a del edificio no es f��cil de evaluar. Los aspectos t��rmicos del interior del ambiente o de iluminaci��n, al utilizar m��dulos BIPV semitransparentes por ejemplo, son a��n desconocidos. Como se dijo antes, la utilizaci��n de componentes de integraci��n arquitect��nica fotovoltaicos y el uso de energ��a renovable ya es un hecho para producir energ��a limpia, pero tambi��n ser��a importante conocer su posible contribuci��n para mejorar el confort y la salud de los ocupantes del edificio. Aspectos como el confort, la protecci��n o transmisi��n de luz natural, el aislamiento t��rmico, el consumo energ��tico o la generaci��n de energ��a son aspectos que suelen considerarse independientemente, mientras que todos juntos contribuyen, sin embargo, al balance energ��tico global del edificio. Adem��s, la necesidad de dar prioridad a una orientaci��n determinada del edificio, para alcanzar el mayor beneficio de la producci��n de energ��a el��ctrica o t��rmica, en el caso de sistemas activos y pasivos, respectivamente, podr��a hacer estos ��ltimos incompatibles, pero no necesariamente. Se necesita un enfoque hol��stico que permita arquitectos e ingenieros implementar sistemas tecnol��gicos que trabajen en sinergia. Se ha planteado por ello un nuevo concepto: "C-BIPV, elemento fotovoltaico consciente integrado", esto significa necesariamente conocer los efectos positivos o negativos (en t��rminos de confort y de energ��a) en condiciones reales de funcionamiento e instalaci��n. Prop��sito de la tesis, m��todo y resultados Los sistemas fotovoltaicos integrados en fachada son a menudo soluciones de vidrio f��cilmente integrables, ya que por lo general est��n hechos a medida. Estos componentes BIPV semitransparentes, integrados en el cerramiento proporcionan iluminaci��n natural y tambi��n sombra, lo que evita el sobrecalentamiento en los momentos de excesivo calor, aunque como componente est��tico, asimismo evitan las posibles contribuciones pasivas de ganancias solares en los meses fr��os. Adem��s, la temperatura del m��dulo var��a considerablemente en ciertas circunstancias influenciada por la tecnolog��a fotovoltaica instalada, la radiaci��n solar, el sistema de montaje, la tipolog��a de instalaci��n, falta de ventilaci��n, etc. Este factor, puede suponer un aumento adicional de la carga t��rmica en el edificio, altamente variable y dif��cil de cuantificar. Se necesitan, en relaci��n con esto, m��s conocimientos sobre el confort ambiental interior en los edificios que utilizan tecnolog��as fotovoltaicas integradas, para abrir de ese modo, una nueva perspectiva de la investigaci��n. Con este fin, se ha dise��ado, proyectado y construido una instalaci��n de pruebas al aire libre, el BIPV Env-lab "BIPV Test Laboratory", para la caracterizaci��n integral de los diferentes m��dulos semitransparentes BIPV. Se han definido tambi��n el m��todo y el protocolo de ensayos de caracterizaci��n en el contexto de un edificio y en condiciones clim��ticas y de funcionamiento reales. Esto ha sido posible una vez evaluado el estado de la t��cnica y la investigaci��n, los aspectos que influyen en la integraci��n arquitect��nica y los diferentes tipos de integraci��n, despu��s de haber examinado los m��todos de ensayo para los componentes de construcci��n y fotovoltaicos, en condiciones de operaci��n utilizadas hasta ahora. El laboratorio de pruebas experimentales, que consiste en dos habitaciones id��nticas a escala real, 1:1, ha sido equipado con sensores y todos los sistemas de monitorizaci��n gracias a los cuales es posible obtener datos fiables para evaluar las prestaciones t��rmicas, de iluminaci��n y el rendimiento el��ctrico de los m��dulos fotovoltaicos. Este laboratorio permite el estudio de tres diferentes aspectos que influencian el confort y consumo de energ��a del edificio: el confort t��rmico, lum��nico, y el rendimiento energ��tico global (demanda/producci��n de energ��a) de los m��dulos BIPV. Conociendo el balance de energ��a para cada tecnolog��a solar fotovoltaica experimentada, es posible determinar cu��l funciona mejor en cada caso espec��fico. Se ha propuesto una metodolog��a te��rica para la evaluaci��n de estos par��metros, definidos en esta tesis como ��ndices o indicadores que consideran cuestiones relacionados con el bienestar, la energ��a y el rendimiento energ��tico global de los componentes BIPV. Esta metodolog��a considera y tiene en cuenta las normas reglamentarias y est��ndares existentes para cada aspecto, relacion��ndolos entre s��. Diferentes m��dulos BIPV de doble vidrio aislante, semitransparentes, representativos de diferentes tecnolog��as fotovoltaicas (tecnolog��a de silicio monocristalino, m-Si; de capa fina en silicio amorfo uni��n simple, a-Si y de capa fina en diseleniuro de cobre e indio, CIS) fueron seleccionados para llevar a cabo una serie de pruebas experimentales al objeto de demostrar la validez del m��todo de caracterizaci��n propuesto. Como resultado final, se ha desarrollado y generado el Diagrama Caracterizaci��n Integral DCI, un sistema gr��fico y visual para representar los resultados y gestionar la informaci��n, una herramienta operativa ��til para la toma de decisiones con respecto a las instalaciones fotovoltaicas. Este diagrama muestra todos los conceptos y par��metros estudiados en relaci��n con los dem��s y ofrece visualmente toda la informaci��n cualitativa y cuantitativa sobre la eficiencia energ��tica de los componentes BIPV, por caracterizarlos de manera integral. ABSTRACT A sustainable design process today is intended to produce high-performance buildings that are energy-efficient, healthy and economically feasible, by wisely using renewable resources to minimize the impact on the environment and to reduce, as much as possible, the energy demand. In the last decade, the reduction of energy needs in buildings has become a top priority. The Directive 2002/91/EC ���Energy Performance of Buildings��� (and its subsequent updates) established a general regulatory framework���s methodology for calculation of minimum energy requirements. Since then, the aim of fulfilling new directives and protocols has led the energy policies in several countries in a similar direction that is, focusing on the need of increasing energy efficiency in buildings, taking measures to reduce energy consumption, and fostering the use of renewable sources. Zero Energy Buildings or Net Zero Energy Buildings will become a standard in the European building industry and in order to balance energy consumption, buildings, in addition to reduce the end-use consumption should necessarily become selfenergy producers. For this reason, the fa��ade system plays an important role for achieving these energy and environmental goals and Photovoltaic can play a leading role in this challenge. To promote the use of photovoltaic technology in buildings, international research programs encourage and support solutions, which favors the complete integration of photovoltaic devices as an architectural element, the so-called BIPV (Building Integrated Photovoltaic), furthermore facing to next future towards net-zero energy buildings. Therefore, the BIPV module/system becomes a multifunctional building layer, not only physically and functionally ���integrated��� in the building, but also used as an innovative chance for the building envelope design. It has been found in this study that there is still a lack of useful information about BIPV for architects and designers even though the market is providing more and more interesting solutions, sometimes comparable to the existing traditional building systems. However at the moment, the lack of an harmonized regulation and standardization besides to the non-accuracy in the technical BIPV datasheets (not yet comparable with the same ones available for building materials), makes difficult for a designer to properly evaluate the fesibility of this BIPV components when used as a technological system of the building skin. International organizations are working to establish the most suitable standards and test procedures to check the safety, feasibility and reliability of BIPV systems. Anyway, nowadays, there are no specific rules for a complete characterization and evaluation of a BIPV component according to the European Construction Product Regulation, CPR 305/2011. BIPV products, as building components, must comply with different practical aspects such as mechanical resistance and stability; structural integrity; safety in use; protection against weather (rain, snow, wind, hail); fire and noise: aspects that have become essential requirements in the perspective of more and more environmentally sustainable, healthy, energy efficient and economically affordable products. IEC standards, commonly used in Europe to certify PV modules (IEC 61215 and IEC 61646 respectively crystalline and thin-film ���Terrestrial PV Modules-Design Qualification and Type Approval���), attest the feasibility and reliability of PV modules for a defined period of time with a limited power decrease. There is also a standard (IEC 61853, ���Performance Testing and Energy Rating of Terrestrial PV Modules���) still under preparation, whose aim is finding appropriate test procedures and methodologies to calculate the energy yield of PV modules under different climate conditions. Furthermore, the lack of tests in specific conditions of installation (e.g. fa��ade BIPV devices) means that it is difficult knowing the exact effective performance of these systems and the environmental conditions in which the building will operate. The nominal PV power at Standard Test Conditions, STC (1.000 W/m2, 25 ��C temperature and AM 1.5) is usually measured in indoor laboratories, and it characterizes the PV module at specific conditions in order to be able to compare different modules and technologies on a first step. The ���Watt-peak��� is not enough to evaluate the panel performance in terms of Watt-hours of various modules under different operating conditions, and it gives no assurance of being able to predict the energy performance of a certain module at given environmental conditions. A proper BIPV element for fa��ade should take into account thermal and insulation properties, factors as transparency to allow solar gains if possible or a good solar control if necessary, aspects that are linked and high dependent on climate conditions and on the level of comfort to be reached. However, the influence of different fa��ade integrated photovoltaic solutions on the building energy consumption is not easy to assess under real operating conditions. Thermal aspects, indoor temperatures or luminance level that can be expected using building integrated PV (BIPV) modules are not well known. As said before, integrated photovoltaic BIPV components and the use of renewable energy is already a standard for green energy production, but would also be important to know the possible contribution to improve the comfort and health of building occupants. Comfort, light transmission or protection, thermal insulation or thermal/electricity power production are aspects that are usually considered alone, while all together contribute to the building global energy balance. Besides, the need to prioritize a particular building envelope orientation to harvest the most benefit from the electrical or thermal energy production, in the case of active and passive systems respectively might be not compatible, but also not necessary. A holistic approach is needed to enable architects and engineers implementing technological systems working in synergy. A new concept have been suggested: ���C-BIPV, conscious integrated BIPV���. BIPV systems have to be ���consciously integrated��� which means that it is essential to know the positive and negative effects in terms of comfort and energy under real operating conditions. Purpose of the work, method and results The fa��ade-integrated photovoltaic systems are often glass solutions easily integrable, as they usually are custommade. These BIPV semi-transparent components integrated as a window element provides natural lighting and shade that prevents overheating at times of excessive heat, but as static component, likewise avoid the possible solar gains contributions in the cold months. In addition, the temperature of the module varies considerably in certain circumstances influenced by the PV technology installed, solar radiation, mounting system, lack of ventilation, etc. This factor may result in additional heat input in the building highly variable and difficult to quantify. In addition, further insights into the indoor environmental comfort in buildings using integrated photovoltaic technologies are needed to open up thereby, a new research perspective. This research aims to study their behaviour through a series of experiments in order to define the real influence on comfort aspects and on global energy building consumption, as well as, electrical and thermal characteristics of these devices. The final objective was to analyze a whole set of issues that influence the global energy consumption/production in a building using BIPV modules by quantifying the global energy balance and the BIPV system real performances. Other qualitative issues to be studied were comfort aspect (thermal and lighting aspects) and the electrical behaviour of different BIPV technologies for vertical integration, aspects that influence both energy consumption and electricity production. Thus, it will be possible to obtain a comprehensive global characterization of BIPV systems. A specific design of an outdoor test facility, the BIPV Env-lab ���BIPV Test Laboratory���, for the integral characterization of different BIPV semi-transparent modules was developed and built. The method and test protocol for the BIPV characterization was also defined in a real building context and weather conditions. This has been possible once assessed the state of the art and research, the aspects that influence the architectural integration and the different possibilities and types of integration for PV and after having examined the test methods for building and photovoltaic components, under operation conditions heretofore used. The test laboratory that consists in two equivalent test rooms (1:1) has a monitoring system in which reliable data of thermal, daylighting and electrical performances can be obtained for the evaluation of PV modules. The experimental set-up facility (testing room) allows studying three different aspects that affect building energy consumption and comfort issues: the thermal indoor comfort, the lighting comfort and the energy performance of BIPV modules tested under real environmental conditions. Knowing the energy balance for each experimented solar technology, it is possible to determine which one performs best. A theoretical methodology has been proposed for evaluating these parameters, as defined in this thesis as indices or indicators, which regard comfort issues, energy and the overall performance of BIPV components. This methodology considers the existing regulatory standards for each aspect, relating them to one another. A set of insulated glass BIPV modules see-through and light-through, representative of different PV technologies (mono-crystalline silicon technology, mc-Si, amorphous silicon thin film single junction, a-Si and copper indium selenide thin film technology CIS) were selected for a series of experimental tests in order to demonstrate the validity of the proposed characterization method. As result, it has been developed and generated the ICD Integral Characterization Diagram, a graphic and visual system to represent the results and manage information, a useful operational tool for decision-making regarding to photovoltaic installations. This diagram shows all concepts and parameters studied in relation to each other and visually provides access to all the results obtained during the experimental phase to make available all the qualitative and quantitative information on the energy performance of the BIPV components by characterizing them in a comprehensive way.