Training project management complexity in postgraduate and continuing education programs: a learning strategy in the eshe (European Space of Higher Education) framework

The objective of this paper is to address the methodological process of a teaching strategy for training project management complexity in postgraduate programs. The proposal is made up of different methods ���intuitive, comparative, deductive, case study, problem-solving Project-Based Learning��� and different activities inside and outside the classroom. This integration of methods motivated the current use of the concept of ���learning strategy���. The strategy has two phases: firstly, the integration of the competences ���technical, behavioral and contextual���in real projects; and secondly, the learning activity was oriented in upper level of knowledge, the evaluating the complexity for projects management in real situations. Both the competences in the learning strategy and the Project Complexity Evaluation are based on the ICB of IPMA. The learning strategy is applied in an international Postgraduate Program ���Erasmus Mundus Master of Science��� with the participation of five Universities of the European Union. This master program is fruit of a cooperative experience from one Educative Innovation Group of the UPM -GIE-Project-, two Research Groups of the UPM and the collaboration with other external agents to the university. Some reflections on the experience and the main success factors in the learning strategy were presented in the paper

Training project management complexity in postgraduate and continuing education programs: a learning strategy in the eshe (European Space of Higher Education) framework

The objective of this paper is to address the methodological process of a teaching strategy for training project management complexity in postgraduate programs. The proposal is made up of different methods ���intuitive, comparative, deductive, case study, problem-solving Project-Based Learning��� and different activities inside and outside the classroom. This integration of methods motivated the current use of the concept of ���learning strategy���. The strategy has two phases: firstly, the integration of the competences ���technical, behavioral and contextual���in real projects; and secondly, the learning activity was oriented in upper level of knowledge, the evaluating the complexity for projects management in real situations. Both the competences in the learning strategy and the Project Complexity Evaluation are based on the ICB of IPMA. The learning strategy is applied in an international Postgraduate Program ���Erasmus Mundus Master of Science��� with the participation of five Universities of the European Union. This master program is fruit of a cooperative experience from one Educative Innovation Group of the UPM -GIE-Project-, two Research Groups of the UPM and the collaboration with other external agents to the university. Some reflections on the experience and the main success factors in the learning strategy were presented in the paper.

Integration of socioeconomic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of animal genetic resources = Integraci��n de aspectos socioecon��micos y gen��ticos involucrados en la conservaci��n de recursos gen��ticos animales

El sector ganadero est�� siendo gradualmente dominado por sistemas intensivos y especializados en los que los factores de producci��n est��n controlados y en los que los caracteres productivos son los criterios principales para la selecci��n de especies y razas. Entretanto, muchos de los bienes y servicios que tradicionalmente suministraba el ganado, tales como los fertilizantes, la tracci��n animal o materias primas para la elaboraci��n vestimenta y calzado est��n siendo reemplazados por productos industriales. Como consecuencia de ambos cambios, las razas seleccionadas intensivamente, las cuales est��n estrechamente ligadas a sistemas agr��colas de alta producci��n y altos insumos, han desplazado a muchas razas aut��ctonas, en las que la selecci��n pr��cticamente ha cesado o es muy poco intensa. Actualmente existe una mayor conciencia social sobre la situaci��n de las razas aut��ctonas y muchas funciones del ganado que previamente hab��an sido ignoradas est��n siendo reconocidas. Desde hace algunas d��cadas, se ha aceptado internacionalmente que las razas de ganado cumplen funciones econ��micas, socio-culturales, medioambientales y de seguridad alimentaria. Por ello, diferentes organismos internacionales han reconocido que la disminuci��n de los recursos gen��ticos de animales dom��sticos (RGADs) es un problema grave y han recomendado su conservaci��n. Aun as��, la conservaci��n de RGADs es un tema controvertido por la dificultad de valorar las funciones del ganado. Esta valoraci��n es compleja debido que los RGADs tiene una doble naturaleza privada - p��blica. Como algunos economistas han subrayado, el ganado es un bien privado, sin embargo debido a algunas de sus funciones, tambi��n es un bien p��blico. De esta forma, el aumento del conocimiento sobre valor de cada una de sus funciones facilitar��a la toma de decisiones en relaci��n a su conservaci��n y desarrollo. Sin embargo, esta valoraci��n es controvertida puesto que la importancia relativa de las funciones del ganado var��a en funci��n del momento, del lugar, de las especies y de las razas. El sector ganadero, debido a sus m��ltiples funciones, est�� influenciado por factores t��cnicos, medioambientales, sociales, culturales y pol��ticos que est��n interrelacionados y que engloban a una enorme variedad de actores y procesos. Al igual que las funciones del ganado, los factores que afectan a su conservaci��n y desarrollo est��n fuertemente condicionados por localizaci��n geogr��fica. Asimismo, estos factores pueden ser muy heterog��neos incluso dentro de una misma raza. Por otro lado, es razonable pensar que el ganadero es el actor principal de la conservaci��n de razas locales. Actualmente, las razas locales est��n siendo Integration of socioeconomic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of animal genetic resources 5 explotadas por ganaderos muy diversos bajo sistemas de producci��n tambi��n muy diferentes. Por todo ello, es de vital importancia comprender y evaluar el impacto que tienen las motivaciones, y el proceso de toma de decisiones de los ganaderos en la estructura gen��tica de las razas. En esta tesis doctoral exploramos diferentes aspectos sociales, econ��micos y gen��ticos involucrados en la conservaci��n de razas locales de ganado vacuno en Europa, como ejemplo de RGADs, esperando contribuir al entendimiento cient��fico de este complejo tema. Nuestro objetivo es conseguir una visi��n global de los procesos subyacentes en la conservaci��n y desarrollo de estas razas. Pretendemos ilustrar como se pueden utilizar m��todos cuantitativos en el dise��o y establecimiento de estrategias de conservaci��n y desarrollo de RGADs objetivas y adecuadas. En primer lugar, exploramos el valor econ��mico total (VET) del ganado analizando sus componentes p��blicos fuera de mercado usando como caso de estudio la raza vacuna Alistana-Sanabresa (AS). El VET de cualquier bien est�� formado por componentes de uso y de no-uso. Estos ��ltimos incluyen el valor de opci��n, el valor de herencia y el valor de existencia. En el caso del ganado local, el valor de uso directo proviene de sus productos. Los valores de uso indirecto est��n relacionados con el papel que cumple las razas en el mantenimiento de los paisajes y cultura rural. El valor de opci��n se refiere a su futuro uso potencial y el valor de herencia al uso potencial de las generaciones venideras. Finalmente, el valor de existencia est�� relacionado con el bienestar que produce a la gente saber que existe un recurso espec��fico. Nuestro objetivo fue determinar la importancia relativa que tienen los componentes fuera de mercado sobre el VET de la raza AS. Para ello evaluamos la voluntad de la gente a pagar por la conservaci��n de la AS mediante experimentos de elecci��n (EEs) a trav��s de encuestas. Estos experimentos permiten valorar individualmente los distintos componentes del VET de cualquier bien. Los resultados los analizamos mediante de uso de modelos aleatorios logit. Encontramos que las funciones p��blicas de la raza AS tienen un valor significativo. Sus valores m��s importantes son el valor de uso indirecto como elemento cultural Zamorano y el valor de existencia (ambos representaron el 80% de VET). Adem��s observamos que el valor que gente da a las funciones p��blicas de la razas de ganado dependen de sus caracter��sticas socioecon��micas. Los factores que condicionaron la voluntad a pagar para la conservaci��n de la raza AS fueron el lugar de residencia (ciudad o pueblo), el haber visto animales de la raza o haber consumido sus productos y la actitud de los encuestados ante los conflictos entre el desarrollo econ��mico y el medioambiente. Por otro lado, encontramos que no todo el mundo tiene una visi��n completa e integrada de todas las funciones p��blicas de la raza AS. Por este motivo, los programas o actividades de concienciaci��n sobre su estado deber��an hacer hincapi�� en este aspecto. La existencia de valores p��blicos de la raza AS implica que los ganaderos deber��an recibir compensaciones econ��micas como pago por las funciones p��blicas que cumple su raza local. Las compensaciones asegurar��an un tama��o de poblaci��n que permitir��a que la raza AS siga realizando estas funciones. Un mecanismo para ello podr��a ser el desarrollo del turismo rural relacionado con la raza. Esto aumentar��a el valor de uso privado mientras que supondr��a un elemento a��adido a las estrategias de conservaci��n y desarrollo. No obstante, los ganaderos deben analizar c��mo aprovechar los nichos de mercado existentes, as�� como mejorar la calidad de los productos de la raza prestando especial atenci��n al etiquetado de los mismos. Una vez evaluada la importancia de las funciones p��blicas de las razas locales de ganado, analizamos la diversidad de factores t��cnicos, econ��micos y sociales de la producci��n de razas locales de ganado vacuno existente en Europa. Con este fin analizamos el caso de quince razas locales de ocho pa��ses en el contexto de un proyecto de colaboraci��n internacional. Investigamos las diferencias entre los pa��ses para determinar los factores comunes clave que afectan a la viabilidad de las razas locales. Para ello entrevistamos mediante cuestionarios a un total de 355 ganaderos en las quince razas. Como indicador de viabilidad usamos los planes de los ganaderos de variaci��n del tama��o de las ganader��as. Los cuestionarios inclu��an diferentes aspectos econ��micos, t��cnicos y sociales con potencial influencia en las din��micas demogr��ficas de las razas locales. Los datos recogidos los analizamos mediante distintas t��cnicas estad��sticas multivariantes como el an��lisis discriminante y la regresi��n log��stica. Encontramos que los factores que afectan a la viabilidad de las razas locales en Europa son muy heterog��neos. Un resultado rese��able fue que los ganaderos de algunos pa��ses no consideran que la explotaci��n de su raza tenga un alto valor social. Este hecho vuelve a poner de manifiesto la importancia de desarrollar programas Europeos de concienciaci��n sobre la importancia de las funciones que cumplen las razas locales. Adem��s los pa��ses analizados presentaron una alta variabilidad en cuanto a la importancia de los mercados locales en la distribuci��n de los productos y en cuanto al porcentaje en propiedad del total de los pastos usados en las explotaciones. Este estudio reflej�� la variabilidad de los sistemas y medios de producci��n (en el sentido socioecon��mico, t��cnico y ecol��gico) que existe en Europa. Por ello hay que ser cautos en la implementaci��n de las pol��ticas comunes en los diferentes pa��ses. Tambi��n encontramos que la variabilidad dentro de los pa��ses puede ser elevada debido a las diferencias entre razas, lo que implica que las pol��ticas nacionales deber ser suficientemente flexibles para adaptarse a las peculiaridades de cada una de las razas. Por otro lado, encontramos una serie de factores comunes a la viabilidad de las razas en los distintos pa��ses; la edad de los ganaderos, la colaboraci��n entre ellos y la apreciaci��n social de las funciones culturales, medioambientales y sociales del ganado local. El envejecimiento de los ganaderos de razas locales no es solo un problema de falta de transferencia generacional, sino que tambi��n puede suponer una actitud m��s negativa hacia la inversi��n en las actividades ganaderas y en una menor capacidad de adaptaci��n a los cambios del sector. La capacidad de adaptaci��n de los ganaderos es un factor crucial en la viabilidad de las razas locales. Las estrategias y pol��ticas de conservaci��n comunes deben incluir las variables comunes a la viabilidad de las razas manteniendo flexibilidad suficiente para adaptarse a las especificidades nacionales. Estas estrategias y pol��ticas deber��an ir m��s all�� de compensaci��n econ��mica a los ganaderos de razas locales por la menor productividad de sus razas. Las herramientas para la toma de decisiones ayudan a generar una visi��n amplia de la conservaci��n y desarrollo de las razas locales. Estas herramientas abordan el dise��o de estrategias de conservaci��n y desarrollo de forma sistem��tica y estructurada. En la tercera parte de la tesis usamos una de estas herramientas, el an��lisis DAFO (Debilidades, Amenazas, Fortalezas y Oportunidades), con este prop��sito, reconociendo que la conservaci��n de RGADs depende de los ganaderos. Desarrollamos un an��lisis DAFO cuantitativo y lo aplicamos a trece razas locales de ganado vacuno de seis pa��ses europeos en el contexto del proyecto de colaboraci��n mencionado anteriormente. El m��todo tiene cuatro pasos: 1) la definici��n del sistema; 2) la identificaci��n y agrupaci��n de los factores influyentes; 3) la cuantificaci��n de la importancia de dichos factores y 4) la identificaci��n y priorizaci��n de estrategias. Identificamos los factores utilizando multitud de agentes (multi-stakeholder appproach). Una vez determinados los factores se agruparon en una estructura de tres niveles. La importancia relativa de los cada uno de los factores para cada raza fue determinada por grupos de expertos en RGADs de los pa��ses integrados en el citado proyecto. Finalmente, desarrollamos un proceso de cuantificaci��n para identificar y priorizar estrategias. La estructura de agrupaci��n de factores permiti�� analizar el problema de la conservaci��n desde el nivel general hasta el concreto. La uni��n de an��lisis espec��ficos de cada una de las razas en un an��lisis DAFO com��n permiti�� evaluar la adecuaci��n de las estrategias a cada caso concreto. Identificamos un total de 99 factores. El an��lisis revel�� que mientras los factores menos importantes son muy consistentes entre razas, los factores y estrategias m��s relevantes son muy heterog��neos. La idoneidad de las estrategias fue mayor a medida que estas se hac��an m��s generales. A pesar de dicha heterogeneidad, los factores influyentes y estrategias m��s importantes estaban ligados a aspectos positivos (fortalezas y oportunidades) lo que implica que el futuro de estas razas es prometedor. Los resultados de nuestro an��lisis tambi��n confirmaron la gran relevancia del valor cultural de estas razas. Las factores internos (fortalezas y debilidades) m��s importantes estaban relacionadas con los sistemas de producci��n y los ganaderos. Las oportunidades m��s relevantes estaban relacionadas con el desarrollo y marketing de nuevos productos mientras que las amenazas m��s importantes se encontraron a la hora de vender los productos actuales. Este resultado implica que ser��a fruct��fero trabajar en la motivaci��n y colaboraci��n entre ganaderos as�� como, en la mejora de sus capacidades. Concluimos que las pol��ticas comunes europeas deber��an centrarse en aspectos generales y ser los suficientemente flexibles para adaptarse a las singularidades de los pa��ses y las razas. Como ya se ha mencionado, los ganaderos juegan un papel esencial en la conservaci��n y desarrollo de las razas aut��ctonas. Por ello es relevante entender que implicaci��n puede tener la heterogeneidad de los mismos en la viabilidad de una raza. En la cuarta parte de la tesis hemos identificado tipos de ganaderos con el fin de entender c��mo la relaci��n entre la variabilidad de sus caracter��sticas socioecon��micas, los perfiles de las ganader��as y las din��micas de las mismas. El an��lisis se ha realizado en un contexto sociol��gico, aplicando los conceptos de capital cultural y econ��mico. Las tipolog��as se han determinado en funci��n de factores socioecon��micos y culturales indicadores del capital cultural y capital econ��mico de un individuo. Nuestro objetivo era estudiar si la tipolog��a socioecon��mica de los ganaderos afecta al perfil de su ganader��a y a las decisiones que toman. Entrevistamos a 85 ganaderos de la raza Avile��a-Negra Ib��rica (ANI) y utilizamos los resultados de dichas entrevistas para ilustrar y testar el proceso. Definimos los tipos de ganaderos utilizando un an��lisis de cl��ster jerarquizado con un grupo de variables can��nicas que se obtuvieron en funci��n de cinco factores socioecon��micos: el nivel de educaci��n del ganadero, el a��o en que empez�� a ser ganadero de ANI, el porcentaje de los ingresos familiares que aporta la ganader��a, el porcentaje de propiedad de la tierra de la explotaci��n y la edad del ganadero. La tipolog��a de los ganaderos de ANI result�� ser m��s compleja que en el pasado. Los resultados indicaron que los tipos de ganaderos variaban en muchos aspectos socioecon��micos y en los perfiles de sus Integration of socioeconomic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of animal genetic resources 9 ganader��as. Los tipos de ganaderos determinados toman diferentes decisiones en relaci��n a la modificaci��n del tama��o de su ganader��a y a sus objetivos de selecci��n. Por otro lado, reaccionaron de forma diferente ante un hipot��tico escenario de reducci��n de las compensaciones econ��micas que les planteamos. En este estudio hemos visto que el capital cultural y el econ��mico interact��an y hemos explicado como lo hacen en los distintos tipos de ganaderos. Por ejemplo, los ganaderos que pose��an un mayor capital econ��mico, capital cultural formal y capital cultural adquirido sobre la raza, eran los ganaderos cuyos animales ten��an una mayor demanda por parte de otros ganaderos, lo cual podr��a responder a su mayor prestigio social dentro de la raza. Uno de los elementos claves para el futuro de la raza es si este prestigio responde a una superioridad gen��tica de las animales. Esto ocurrir��a si los ganaderos utilizaran las herramientas que tienen a su disposici��n a la hora de seleccionar animales. Los tipos de ganaderos identificados mostraron tambi��n claras diferencias en sus formas de colaboraci��n y en su reacci��n a una hipot��tica variaci��n de las compensaciones econ��micas. Aunque algunos tipos de ganaderos mostraron un bajo nivel de dependencia a estas compensaciones, la mayor��a se manifestaron altamente dependientes. Por ello cualquier cambio dr��stico en la pol��tica de ayudas puede comprometer el desarrollo de las razas aut��ctonas. La adaptaci��n las pol��ticas de compensaciones econ��micas a la heterogeneidad de los ganaderos podr��a aumentar la eficacia de las mismas por lo que ser��a interesante explorar posibilidades a este respecto. Concluimos destacando la necesidad de desarrollar pol��ticas que tengan en cuenta la heterogeneidad de los ganaderos. Finalmente abordamos el estudio de la estructura gen��tica de poblaciones ganaderas. Las decisiones de los ganaderos en relaci��n a la selecci��n de sementales y su n��mero de descendientes configuran la estructura demogr��fica y gen��tica de las razas. En la actualidad existe un inter��s renovado por estudiar las estructuras poblacionales debido a la influencia potencial de su estratificaci��n sobre la predicci��n de valores gen��micos y/o los an��lisis de asociaci��n a genoma completo. Utilizamos dos m��todos distintos, un algoritmo de cl��steres basados en teor��a de grafos (GCA) y un algoritmo de clustering bayesiano (STRUCTURE) para estudiar la estructura gen��tica de la raza ANI. Prestamos especial atenci��n al efecto de la presencia de parientes cercanos en la poblaci��n y de la diferenciaci��n gen��tica entre subpoblaciones sobre el an��lisis de la estructura de la poblaci��n. En primer lugar evaluamos el comportamiento de los dos algoritmos en poblaciones simuladas para posteriormente analizar los genotipos para 17 microsat��lites de 13343 animales de 57 ganader��as distintas de raza ANI. La ANI es un ejemplo de raza con relaciones complejas. Por otro lado, utilizamos el archivo de pedigr�� de la raza para estudiar el flujo de genes, calculando, entre otras cosas, la contribuci��n de cada ganader��a a la constituci��n gen��tica de la raza. En el caso de las poblaciones simuladas, cuando el FST entre subpoblaciones fue suficientemente alto, ambos algoritmos, GCA y STRUCTURE, identificaron la misma estructura gen��tica independientemente de que existieran o no relaciones familiares. Por el contrario, cuando el grado de diferenciaci��n entre poblaciones fue bajo, el STRUCTURE identific�� la estructura familiar mientras que GCA no permiti�� obtener ning��n resultado concluyente. El GCA result�� ser un algoritmo m��s r��pido y eficiente para de inferir la estructura gen��tica en poblaciones con relaciones complejas. Este algoritmo tambi��n puede ser usado para reducir el n��mero de cl��steres a testar con el STRUTURE. En cuanto al an��lisis de la poblaci��n de ANI, ambos algoritmos describieron la misma estructura, lo cual sugiere que los resultados son robustos. Se identificaron tres subpoblaciones diferenciadas que pudieran corresponderse con tres linajes distintos. Estos linajes estar��an directamente relacionados con las ganader��as que han tenido una mayor contribuci��n a la constituci��n gen��tica de la raza. Por otro lado, hay un conjunto muy numeroso de individuos con una mezcla de or��genes. La informaci��n molecular describe una estructura estratificada de la poblaci��n que se corresponde con la evoluci��n demogr��fica de la raza. Es esencial analizar en mayor profundidad la composici��n de este ��ltimo grupo de animales para determinar c��mo afecta a la variabilidad gen��tica de la poblaci��n de ANI. SUMMARY Summary Livestock sector is gradually dominated by intensive and specialized systems where the production environment is controlled and the production traits are the main criteria for the selection of species and breeds. In the meantime, the traditional use of domestic animals for draught work, clothes and manure has been replaced by industrial products. As a consequence of both these changes, the intensively selected breeds closely linked with high-input highoutput production systems have displaced many native breeds where the selection has practically ceased or been very mild. People are now more aware of the state of endangerment among the native breeds and the previously ignored values of livestock are gaining recognition. For some decades now, the economic, socio-cultural, environmental and food security function of livestock breeds have been accepted worldwide and their loss has been recognized as a major problem. Therefore, the conservation of farm animal genetic resources (FAnGR) has been recommended. The conservation of FAnGR is controversial due to the complexity of the evaluation of its functions. This evaluation is difficult due to the nature of FAnGR both as private and public good. As some economists have highlighted, livestock animals are private goods, however, they are also public goods by their functions. Therefore, there is a need to increase the knowledge about the value of all livestock functions since to support the decision-making for the sustainable conservation and breeding of livestock. This is not straightforward since the relative importance of livestock functions depends on time, place, species and breed. Since livestock play a variety of roles, their production is driven by interrelated and everchanging economic, technical, environmental, social, cultural and political elements involving an enormous range of stakeholders. Not only FAnGR functions but also the importance of factors affecting the development and conservation of FAnGR can be very different across geographical areas. Furthermore, heterogeneity can be found even within breeds. Local breeds are nowadays raised by highly diverse farmers in equally diverse farms. It is quite reasonable to think that farmer is the major actor in the in situ conservation of livestock breeds. Thus, there is a need to understand the farmers��� motivations, decision making processes and the impact of their decisions on the genetic structure of breeds. In this PhD thesis we explore different social, economic and genetic aspects involved in the conservation of local cattle breeds, i.e. FAnGR, in Europe seeking to contribute to the scientific understanding of this complex issue. We aim to achieve a comprehensive view of the processes involved in the conservation and development of local cattle breeds and have made special efforts in discussing the implications of the research results in this respect. The final outcome of the thesis is to illustrate how quantitative methods can be exploited in designing and establishing sound strategies and programmes for the conservation and development of local livestock breeds. Firstly we explored the public non-market attributes of the total economic value (TEV) of livestock, using the Spanish Alistana-Sanabresa (AS) cattle breed as a case study. Total economic value of any good comprises both use and non-use components, where the latter include option, bequest and existence values. For livestock, the direct use values are mainly stemming from production outputs. Indirect use values relate to the role of livestock as a maintainer of rural culture and landscape. The option value is related to the potential use of livestock, the bequest values relate to the value associated with the inheritance of the resources to future generation and the existence values relate to the utility perceived by people from knowing that specific resources exist. We aimed to determine the relative importance of the non-market components of the TEV of the AS breed, the socio-economic variables that influence how people value the different components of TEV and to assess the implications of the Spanish national conservation strategy for the AS breed. To do so, we used a choice experiment (CE) approach and applied the technique to assess people���s willingness to pay (WTP) for the conservation of AS breed. The use of CE allows the valuation of the individual components of TEV for a given good. We analysed the choice data using a random parameter logit (RPL) model. AS breed was found to have a significant public good value. Its most important values were related to the indirect use value due to the maintenance of Zamorian culture and the existence value (both represent over 80% of its TEV). There were several socioeconomic variables influencing people���s valuation of the public service of the breed. In the case of AS breed, the place of living (city or rural area), having seen animals of the breed, having eaten breed products and the respondents��� attitude towards economic development ��� environment conflicts do influence people���s WTP for AS conservation. We also found that people do not have a complete picture of all the functions and roles that AS breed as AnGR. Therefore, the actions for increasing awareness of AS should go to that direction. The farmers will need incentives to exploit some of the public goods values and maintain the breed population size at socially desirable levels. One such mechanism could be related to the development of agritourism, which would enhance the private good value and provide an important addition to the conservation and utilisation strategy. However, the farmers need a serious evaluation on how to invest in niche product development or how to improve product quality and brand recognition. Using the understanding on the importance of the public function of local cattle we tried to depict the current diversity regarding technical, economic and social factors found in local cattle farming across Europe. To do so we focused in an international collaborative project on the case of fifteen local cattle breeds in eight European countries. We investigated the variation among the countries to detect the common key elements, which affect the viability of local breeds. We surveyed with interviews a total of 355 farms across the fifteen breeds. We used the planned herd size changes by the farmer as an indicator of breed viability. The questionnaire included several economic, technical and social aspects with potential influence on breeds��� demographic trends. We analysed the data using multivariate statistical techniques, such as discriminat analysis and logistic regression. The factors affecting a local breed���s viability were highly heterogeneous across Europe. In some countries, farmers did not recognise any high social value attached to keeping a local cattle breed. Hence there is a need to develop communication programmes across EU countries making people aware about the diversity and importance of values associated to raising local breeds. The countries were also very variable regarding the importance of local markets and the percentage of farm land owned by the farmers. Despite the country specificities, there were also common factors affecting the breed viability across Europe. The factors were from different grounds, from social, such as the age of the farmer and the social appreciation of their work, to technicalorganizational, such as the farmers��� attitude to collaborating with each other. The heterogeneity found reflects the variation in breeding systems and production environment (in the socioeconomic, technical and ecological sense) present in Europe. Therefore, caution should be taken in implementing common policies at the country level. Variability could also be rather high within countries due to breed specificities. Therefore, the national policies should be flexible to adapt to the specificities. The variables significantly associated with breed viability should be positively incorporated in the conservation strategies, and considered in developing common and/or national policies. The strategy preparation and policy planning should go beyond the provision of a general economic support to compensate farmers for the lower profitability of local breeds. Of particular interest is the observation that the opportunity for farmer collaboration and the appreciation by the society of the cultural, environmental and social role of local cattle farming were positively associated with the breed survival. In addition, farmer's high age is not only a problem of poor generation transfer but it is also a problem because it might lead to a lower attitude to investing in farming activities and to a lower ability to adapt to environment changes. The farmers��� adaptation capability may be a key point for the viability of local breeds. Decision making tools can help to get a comprehensive view on the conservation and development of local breeds. It allows us to use a systematic and structured approach for identifying and prioritizing conservation and development strategies. We used SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses Opportunities and Threats) analysis for this purpose and recognized that many conservation and development projects rely on farmers. We developed a quantified SWOT method and applied it in the aforementioned collaborative research to a set of thirteen cattle breeds in six European countries. The method has four steps: definition of the system, identification and grouping of the driving factors, quantification of the importance of driving factors and identification and prioritization of the strategies. The factors were determined following a multi-stakeholder approach and grouped with a three level structure. FAnGR expert groups ranked the factors and a quantification process was implemented to identify and prioritize strategies. The structure of the SWOT analysis allowed analyzing the conservation problem from general down to specific perspectives. Joining breed specific analyses into a common SWOT analysis permitted comparison of breed cases across countries. We identified 99 driving factors across breeds. The across breed analysis revealed that irrelevant factors were consistent. There was high heterogeneity among the most relevant factors and strategies. The strategies increased eligibility as they lost specificity. Although the situation was very heterogeneous, the most promising factors and strategies were linked to the positive aspects (Strengths and Opportunities). Therefore, the future of the studied local breed is promising. The results of our analysis also confirmed the high relevance of the cultural value of the breeds. The most important internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) were related farmers and production systems. The most important opportunities were found in developing and marketing new products, while the most relevant threats were found in selling the current conventional products. In this regard, it should be fruitful to work on farmers��� motivation, collaboration, and capacity building. We conclude that European policies should focus on general aspects and be flexible enough to be adapted to the country and breed specificities. As mentioned, farmers have a key role in the conservation and development of a local cattle breed. Therefore, it is very relevant to understand the implications of farmer heterogeneity within a breed for its viability. In the fourth part of the thesis, we developed a general farmer typology to help analyzing the relations between farmer features and farm profiles, herd dynamics and farmers��� decision making. In the analysis we applied and used the sociological framework of economic and cultural capital and studied how the determined farmer types were linked to farm profiles and breeding decisions, among others. The typology was based on measurable socioeconomic factors indicating the economic and cultural capital of farmers. A group of 85 farmers raising the Spanish Avile��a-Negra Ib��rica (ANI) local cattle breed was used to illustrate and test the procedure. The farmer types were defined by a hierarchical cluster analysis with a set of canonical variables derived from the following five the socioeconomic factors: the formal educational level of the farmer, the year the farmer started keeping the ANI breed, the percentage of the total family income covered by the farm, the percentage of the total farm land owned by the farmer and the farmer���s age. The present ANI farmer types were much more complex than what they were in the past. We found that the farmer types differed in many socioeconomic aspects and in the farms profile. Furthermore, the types also differentiate farmers with respect to decisions about changing the farm size, breeding aims and stated reactions towards hypothetical subsidy variation. We have verified that economic and cultural capitals are not independent and further showed how they are interacting in the different farmer types. The farmers related to the types with high economic, institutionalized and embodied cultural capitals had a higher demand of breeding animals from others farmers of the breed, which may be related to the higher social prestige within the breed. One of the key implications of this finding for the future of the breed is whether or not the prestige of farmers is related to genetic superiority of their animals, what is to say, that it is related with a sound use of tools that farmers have available to make selection decisions. The farmer types differed in the form of collaboration and in the reactions to the hypothetical variation in subsidies. There were farmers with low dependency on subsidies, while most of them are highly dependent on subsidies. Therefore, any drastic change in the subsidy programme might have influence on the development of local breeds. The adaptation of these programme to the farmers��� heterogeneity might increase its efficacy, thus it would be interesting to explore ways of doing it. We conclude highlighting the need to have a variety of policies, which take into account the heterogeneity among the farmers. To finish we dealt with the genetic structure of livestock populations. Farmers��� decisions on the breeding animals and their progeny numbers shape the demographic and genetic structure of the breeds. Nowadays there is a renovated interest in studying the population structure since it can bias the prediction of genomic breeding values and genome wide association studies. We determined the genetic structure of ANI breed using two different methods, a graphical clustering algorithm (GCA) and a Bayesian clustering algorithm (STRUCTURE) were used. We paid particular attention to the influence that the presence of closely related individuals and the genetic differentiation of subpopulations may have on the inferences about the population structure. We first evaluated the performance of the algorithms in simulated populations. Then we inferred the genetic structure of the Spanish cattle breed ANI analysing a data set of 13343 animals (genotyped for 17 microsatellites) from 57 herds. ANI breed is an example of a population with complex relationships. We used the herdbook to study the gene flow, estimation among other things, the contribution of different herds to the genetic composition of the ANI breed. For the simulated scenarios, when FST among subpopulations was sufficiently high, both algorithms consistently inferred the correct structure regardless of the presence of related individuals. However, when the genetic differentiation among subpopulations was low, STRUCTURE identified the family based structure while GCA did not provide any consistent picture. The GCA was a fast and efficient method to infer genetic structure to determine the hidden core structure of a population with complex history and relationships. GCA could also be used to narrow down the number of clusters to be tested by STRUCTURE. Both, STRUCTURE and GCA describe a similar structure for the ANI breed suggesting that the results are robust. ANI population was found to have three genetically differentiated clusters that could correspond to three genetic lineages. These are directly related to the herds with a major contribution to the breed. In addition, ANI breed has also a large pool made of individuals with an admixture of origins. The genetic structure of ANI, assessed by molecular information, shows a stratification that corresponds to the demographic evolution of the breed. It will be of great importance to learn more about the composition of the pool and study how it is related to the existing genetic variability of the breed.

Integration of temporal and semantic components into the Geographic Information. Part II: Methodology

The overall objective of this research project is to enrich geographic data with temporal and semantic components in order to significantly improve spatio-temporal analysis of geographic phenomena. To achieve this goal, we intend to establish and incorporate three new layers (structures) into the core of the Geographic Information by using mark-up languages as well as defining a set of methods and tools for enriching the system to make it able to retrieve and exploit such layers (semantic-temporal, geosemantic, and incremental spatio-temporal). Besides these layers, we also propose a set of models (temporal and spatial) and two semantic engines that make the most of the enriched geographic data. The roots of the project and its definition have been previously presented in Siabato & Manso-Callejo 2011. In this new position paper, we extend such work by delineating clearly the methodology and the foundations on which we will base to define the main components of this research: the spatial model, the temporal model, the semantic layers, and the semantic engines. By putting together the former paper and this new work we try to present a comprehensive description of the whole process, from pinpointing the basic problem to describing and assessing the solution. In this new article we just mention the methods and the background to describe how we intend to define the components and integrate them into the GI.

Identifying Potential Risks and Benefits of Using Cloud in Distributed Software Development.

Cloud-based infrastructure has been increasingly adopted by the industry in distributed software development (DSD) environments. Its proponents claim that its several benefits include reduced cost, increased speed and greater productivity in software development. Empirical evaluations, however, are in the nascent stage of examining both the benefits and the risks of cloud-based infrastructure. The objective of this paper is to identify potential benefits and risks of using cloud in a DSD project conducted by teams based in Helsinki and Madrid. A cross-case qualitative analysis is performed based on focus groups conducted at the Helsinki and Madrid sites. Participants observations are used to supplement the analysis. The results of the analysis indicated that the main benefits of using cloud are rapid development, continuous integration, cost savings, code sharing, and faster ramp-up. The key risks determined by the project are dependencies, unavailability of access to the cloud, code commitment and integration, technical debt, and additional support costs. The results revealed that if such environments are not planned and set up carefully, the benefits of using cloud in DSD projects might be overshadowed by the risks associated with it.

The role of rehabilitation of building in the urban integration, social cohesion and environmental responsibility

In the framework ofthe National Research Plan2008-2011, our research poses estrategy for the design and evaluation of plans and programmes of urban integrated regeneration. The objective is to develop a study on the role of rehabilitation of buildings in concepts like urban integration, social cohesion and environmental responsibility. The research proposes a methodological tool for evaluating urban regeneration processes from a holistic perspective that can serve as a guide for governments and technical teams to address intervention in consolidated urban areas with physical and socio-economic problems. The development of the tool has inevitably led to delve into different areas where you can intervene but has not lost sight of the complex interplay of factors involved in the process.It is an open source tool to visualize Urban Integrated Rehabilitation processes.

Modelo de integraci��n del conocimiento-acci��n a trav��s del Proyecto de Comunicaci��n para el Desarrollo: 25 a��os de experiencia en comunidades ind��genas andinas en Ecuador

El desarrollo como pol��tica de las naciones marca el per��odo de la postguerra, que en Am��rica Latina se concreta en m��ltiples programas de Desarrollo Rural. El modelo inicial de crecimiento econ��mico se va enriqueciendo con visiones centradas en el ser humano y sus m��ltiples concepciones de desarrollo. En este entender el desarrollo desde la diversidad cultural y antropol��gica de los pueblos de Am��rica Latina, surge la comunicaci��n radiof��nica como camino com��n para la persuasi��n, socializaci��n y apropiaci��n colectiva de conocimientos y ��mbito participativo para consensuar objetivos y acordar actividades. El activismo de los a��os setenta y ochenta produjo un n��mero considerable de experiencias. La mayor��a de ellas han llegado hasta nuestros d��as, pero el giro tomado por las sociedades digitalizadas y las prioridades medioambientales han dado un nuevo rostro a aquellas primeras experiencias centradas en el desarrollo rural end��geno. Este estudio investiga el complejo pr��ctico-te��rico que integra comunicaci��n y desarrollo en contextos territoriales interculturales con poblaci��n marginal y aplicaci��n de pol��ticas de desarrollo rural. En el cap��tulo I se recogen las modalidades de c��mo se ha aplicado la comunicaci��n en programas de desarrollo, para profundizar en el concepto de comunicaci��n para el desarrollo, conocer sus actores y resultados, y concluir que el desarrollo ���con rostro humano��� se hace con personas no con pol��ticas oficiales. El cap��tulo II presenta a los Pueblos Ind��genas de la Sierra Ecuatoriana como actores de su proceso de desarrollo hacia el Sumak Kawsay. Los temas tratados en este cap��tulo muestran los valores y capacidades de las comunidades ind��genas de la Sierra Ecuatoriana para la autogesti��n de su desarrollo, y deja constancia y denuncia de la lectura negativa que se ha venido haciendo de su cosmovisi��n. Se encuentra respuesta conceptual y metodol��gica en el Workng With People para optimizar aportes culturales de los Pueblos Ind��genas al proceso comunicacional y participativo para mejorar las condiciones de vida y lograr mayores espacios de autonom��a y libertad El conocimiento que explica la realidad sin cambiarla no tiene sentido para los pobres. La realidad requiere ser comprendida para construir el conocimiento que la explique y la cambie: ese es el aporte del modelo conocimiento/acci��n que se presenta en el cap��tulo III. En este cap��tulo se exponen metodolog��as abiertas a la creatividad y flexibles que responden a los principios del modelo conocimiento/acci��n. La comunicaci��n para el desarrollo se abre a todas ellas como ��gora pluricultural que requiere un lenguaje com��n que se construye desde el aprendizaje social. Los conceptos expuestos en el cap��tulo III se vinculan en una propuesta metodol��gica que integra el conocimiento y la acci��n con los principios del Working With People, propuesta que se expone en el cap��tulo IV. El modelo del Proyecto de Comunicaci��n para el Desarrollo junta en un modelo de comunicaci��n popular y pr��cticas liberadoras con m��todos cognitivos de la realidad para planificar el cambio desde la poblaci��n y con la poblaci��n. Finalmente, el cap��tulo V recoge la experiencia de la Casa Campesina Cayambe ejecutora del Proyecto de Comunicaci��n para el Desarrollo en la adaptaci��n ejecutada con Radio Mensaje. La riqueza de la experiencia tiende a escaparse de los l��mites conceptuales y los esquemas dejan espacios de vida ignotos; pero los conceptos y esquemas constituyen el camino para que la experiencia pase a ser objeto conocido y conocimiento socializado. El Proyecto de Comunicaci��n para el Desarrollo es resultado de un proceso de desarrollo construido desde la acci��n de la Casa Campesina Cayambe durante 25 a��os en Cayambe. En el cap��tulo V se describe el contexto del territorio de Cayambe, la identidad de la Casa Campesina Cayambe y de Radio Mensaje, y termina describiendo los logros de 25 a��os trabajando con la gente. El estudio concluye que la comunicaci��n participativa, como ��mbito de aprendizaje social aplicado en procesos de desarrollo rural, integra el conocimiento/acci��n e incorpora nuevos conocimientos en la poblaci��n con los que se desarrollan competencias locales para planificar el desarrollo end��geno con flexibilidad y de abajo-arriba. La Figura 0-1 grafica los elementos bases sobre los que se construye el proceso de desarrollo. ABSTRACT Development as a policy of nations marks the postwar period which created several Rural Development Programs in Latin America. The initial model of economic growth was enriched with approaches focused on human beings and their multiple conceptions of development. In this regard, the development from cultural and anthropological diversity in Latin America, radio communication emerges as a common means for persuasion, socialization and collective appropriation of knowledge and scope for participation in order to agree on objectives and activities. Activism of the seventies and eighties generated a considerable number of experiences, most of which are present today. However, a turn taken by digitalized societies and environmental priorities has given those first experiences which focused on endogenous rural development a new face. This study researches the theoretical-practical status that integrates communication and development in intercultural contexts with marginal population and the use of rural development policies. Chapter one shows the modalities of how communication in development programs have been applied to deepen the concept of communication for development, to know those who are involved and its findings, and conclude that development ���with a human face��� is done with people not with official policies. Chapter two presents Indigenous communities in the Ecuadorian highlands, as people involved in their development process towards Sumak Kawsay. The topics in this chapter show the values and capacities indigenous communities in the Ecuadorian highlands have to self-manage their development, and proves, as well as denounces, that their cosmovision has been negatively perceived. A conceptual and methodological response is found in Working With People in order to optimize cultural contributions of Indigenous People to the communicational and participative process to improve life conditions and have greater spaces of autonomy and freedom. Knowledge which explains reality without changing it does not make any sense for the poor. Reality need to be understood in order to build the knowledge that will explain it and change it: that is the contribution of the knowledge/action model presented in chapter three. This chapter presents open methodologies to creativity which are flexible to respond to the principles of the knowledge/action model. Communication for development is open to all of them as pluricultural agora which requires a common language that is built from social learning. The concepts presented in chapter three are linked in a methodological proposal which integrates knowledge and action with principles of Working With People, proposal which is presented chapter four. The model of the Communication for Development Project includes popular communication elements and liberating practices with cognitive methods of reality to plan change from the population and with the population. Finally, chapter five presents the experiences from the Cayambe Country House, which conducted the Communication for Development Project in the adaptation implemented with Radio Mensaje. The wealth of experience tends to scape from the conceptual limits and the schemes leave gaps of unexplored life; but the concepts and schemes constitute the way so that experience becomes a known object and socialized knowledge. The Communication for Development Project is the result of a development process built from the actions of the Cayambe Country House during 25 years in Cayambe. Chapter five describes the context of Cayambe, the identity of the Cayambe Country House and Radio Mensaje, and the achievements after 25 years of working with its people. The study concludes that participatory communication, as an area of social learning applied to rural development processes, integrates knowledge/action and incorporates new knowledge in communities to develop local competencies to plan endogenous development with flexibility and from the bottom ��� up.

Communication-efficient and crash-quiescent Omega with unknown membership

The failure detector class Omega (��) provides an eventual leader election functionality, i.e., eventually all correct processes permanently trust the same correct process. An algorithm is communication-efficient if the number of links that carry messages forever is bounded by n, being n the number of processes in the system. It has been defined that an algorithm is crash-quiescent if it eventually stops sending messages to crashed processes. In this regard, it has been recently shown the impossibility of implementing �� crash quiescently without a majority of correct processes. We say that the membership is unknown if each process pi only knows its own identity and the number of processes in the system (that is, i and n), but pi does not know the identity of the rest of processes of the system. There is a type of link (denoted by ADD link) in which a bounded (but unknown) number of consecutive messages can be delayed or lost. In this work we present the first implementation (to our knowledge) of �� in partially synchronous systems with ADD links and with unknown membership. Furthermore, it is the first implementation of �� that combines two very interesting properties: communication-efficiency and crash-quiescence when the majority of processes are correct. Finally, we also obtain with the same algorithm a failure detector () such that every correct process eventually and permanently outputs the set of all correct processes.

A repository for integration of software artifacts with dependency resolution and federation support

While developing new IT products, reusability of existing components is a key aspect that can considerably improve the success rate. This fact has become even more important with the rise of the open source paradigm. However, integrating different products and technologies is not always an easy task. Different communities employ different standards and tools, and most times is not clear which dependencies a particular piece of software has. This is exacerbated by the transitive nature of these dependencies, making component integration a complicated affair. To help reducing this complexity we propose a model-based repository, capable of automatically resolve the required dependencies. This repository needs to be expandable, so new constraints can be analyzed, and also have federation support, for the integration with other sources of artifacts. The solution we propose achieves these working with OSGi components and using OSGi itself.

The dicode workbench: A flexible framework for the integration of information and web services

Aiming to address requirements concerning integration of services in the context of ?big data?, this paper presents an innovative approach that (i) ensures a flexible, adaptable and scalable information and computation infrastructure, and (ii) exploits the competences of stakeholders and information workers to meaningfully confront information management issues such as information characterization, classification and interpretation, thus incorporating the underlying collective intelligence. Our approach pays much attention to the issues of usability and ease-of-use, not requiring any particular programming expertise from the end users. We report on a series of technical issues concerning the desired flexibility of the proposed integration framework and we provide related recommendations to developers of such solutions. Evaluation results are also discussed.

Review of the C-nat(n,gamma) cross section and criticality calculations of the graphite moderated reactor BR1

A review of the experimental data for natC(n,c) and 12C(n,c) was made to identify the origin of the natC capture cross sections included in evaluated data libraries and to clarify differences observed in neutronic calculations for graphite moderated reactors using different libraries. The performance of the JEFF-3.1.2 and ENDF/B-VII.1 libraries was verified by comparing results of criticality calculations with experimental results obtained for the BR1 reactor. This reactor is an air-cooled reactor with graphite as moderator and is located at the Belgian Nuclear Research Centre SCK-CEN in Mol (Belgium). The results of this study confirm conclusions drawn from neutronic calculations of the High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR) in Japan. Furthermore, both BR1 and HTTR calculations support the capture cross section of 12C at thermal energy which is recommended by Firestone and R��vay. Additional criticality calculations were carried out in order to illustrate that the natC thermal capture cross section is important for systems with a large amount of graphite. The present study shows that only the evaluation carried out for JENDL-4.0 reflects the current status of the experimental data.

User Experience in Human-Technology Interaction. Communication, context and evaluation methodology

En esta Tesis se presentan dos l��neas de investigaci��n relacionadas y que contribuyen a las ��reas de Interacci��n Hombre-Tecnolog��a (o M��quina; siglas en ingl��s: HTI o HMI), ling����stica computacional y evaluaci��n de la experiencia del usuario. Las dos l��neas en cuesti��n son el dise��o y la evaluaci��n centrada en el usuario de sistemas de Interacci��n Hombre-M��quina avanzados. En la primera parte de la Tesis (Cap��tulos 2 a 4) se abordan cuestiones fundamentales del dise��o de sistemas HMI avanzados. El Cap��tulo 2 presenta una panor��mica del estado del arte de la investigaci��n en el ��mbito de los sistemas conversacionales multimodales, con la que se enmarca el trabajo de investigaci��n presentado en el resto de la Tesis. Los Cap��tulos 3 y 4 se centran en dos grandes aspectos del dise��o de sistemas HMI: un gestor del di��logo generalizado para tratar la Interacci��n Hombre-M��quina multimodal y sensible al contexto, y el uso de agentes animados personificados (ECAs) para mejorar la robustez del di��logo, respectivamente. El Cap��tulo 3, sobre gesti��n del di��logo, aborda el tratamiento de la heterogeneidad de la informaci��n proveniente de las modalidades comunicativas y de los sensores externos. En este cap��tulo se propone, en un nivel de abstracci��n alto, una arquitectura para la gesti��n del di��logo con influjos heterog��neos de informaci��n, apoy��ndose en el uso de State Chart XML. En el Cap��tulo 4 se presenta una contribuci��n a la representaci��n interna de intenciones comunicativas, y su traducci��n a secuencias de gestos a ejecutar por parte de un ECA, dise��ados espec��ficamente para mejorar la robustez en situaciones de di��logo cr��ticas que pueden surgir, por ejemplo, cuando se producen errores de entendimiento en la comunicaci��n entre el usuario humano y la m��quina. Se propone, en estas p��ginas, una extensi��n del Functional Mark-up Language definido en el marco conceptual SAIBA. Esta extensi��n permite representar actos comunicativos que realizan intenciones del emisor (la m��quina) que no se pretende sean captadas conscientemente por el receptor (el usuario humano), pero con las que se pretende influirle a ��ste e influir el curso del di��logo. Esto se consigue mediante un objeto llamado Base de Intenciones Comunicativas (en ingl��s, Communication Intention Base, o CIB). La representaci��n en el CIB de intenciones ���no claradas��� adem��s de las expl��citas permite la construcci��n de actos comunicativos que realizan simult��neamente varias intenciones comunicativas. En el Cap��tulo 4 tambi��n se describe un sistema experimental para el control remoto (simulado) de un asistente dom��tico, con autenticaci��n de locutor para dar acceso, y con un ECA en el interfaz de cada una de estas tareas. Se incluye una descripci��n de las secuencias de comportamiento verbal y no verbal de los ECAs, que fueron dise��ados espec��ficamente para determinadas situaciones con objeto de mejorar la robustez del di��logo. Los Cap��tulos 5 a 7 conforman la parte de la Tesis dedicada a la evaluaci��n. El Cap��tulo 5 repasa antecedentes relevantes en la literatura de tecnolog��as de la informaci��n en general, y de sistemas de interacci��n hablada en particular. Los principales antecedentes en el ��mbito de la evaluaci��n de la interacci��n sobre los cuales se ha desarrollado el trabajo presentado en esta Tesis son el Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), la herramienta Subjective Assessment of Speech System Interfaces (SASSI), y la Recomendaci��n P.851 de la ITU-T. En el Cap��tulo 6 se describen un marco y una metodolog��a de evaluaci��n aplicados a la experiencia del usuario con sistemas HMI multimodales. Se desarroll�� con este prop��sito un novedoso marco de evaluaci��n subjetiva de la calidad de la experiencia del usuario y su relaci��n con la aceptaci��n por parte del mismo de la tecnolog��a HMI (el nombre dado en ingl��s a este marco es Subjective Quality Evaluation Framework). En este marco se articula una estructura de clases de factores subjetivos relacionados con la satisfacci��n y aceptaci��n por parte del usuario de la tecnolog��a HMI propuesta. Esta estructura, tal y como se propone en la presente tesis, tiene dos dimensiones ortogonales. Primero se identifican tres grandes clases de par��metros relacionados con la aceptaci��n por parte del usuario: ���agradabilidad ��� (likeability: aquellos que tienen que ver con la experiencia de uso, sin entrar en valoraciones de utilidad), rechazo (los cuales s��lo pueden tener una valencia negativa) y percepci��n de utilidad. En segundo lugar, este conjunto clases se reproduce para distintos ���niveles, o focos, percepci��n del usuario���. ��stos incluyen, como m��nimo, un nivel de valoraci��n global del sistema, niveles correspondientes a las tareas a realizar y objetivos a alcanzar, y un nivel de interfaz (en los casos propuestos en esta tesis, el interfaz es un sistema de di��logo con o sin un ECA). En el Cap��tulo 7 se presenta una evaluaci��n emp��rica del sistema descrito en el Cap��tulo 4. El estudio se apoya en los mencionados antecedentes en la literatura, ampliados con par��metros para el estudio espec��fico de los agentes animados (los ECAs), la auto-evaluaci��n de las emociones de los usuarios, as�� como determinados factores de rechazo (concretamente, la preocupaci��n por la privacidad y la seguridad). Tambi��n se eval��a el marco de evaluaci��n subjetiva de la calidad propuesto en el cap��tulo anterior. Los an��lisis de factores efectuados revelan una estructura de par��metros muy cercana conceptualmente a la divisi��n de clases en utilidad-agradabilidad-rechazo propuesta en dicho marco, resultado que da cierta validez emp��rica al marco. An��lisis basados en regresiones lineales revelan estructuras de dependencias e interrelaci��n entre los par��metros subjetivos y objetivos considerados. El efecto central de mediaci��n, descrito en el Technology Acceptance Model, de la utilidad percibida sobre la relaci��n de dependencia entre la intenci��n de uso y la facilidad de uso percibida, se confirma en el estudio presentado en la presente Tesis. Adem��s, se ha encontrado que esta estructura de relaciones se fortalece, en el estudio concreto presentado en estas p��ginas, si las variables consideradas se generalizan para cubrir m��s ampliamente las categor��as de agradabilidad y utilidad contempladas en el marco de evaluaci��n subjetiva de calidad. Se ha observado, asimismo, que los factores de rechazo aparecen como un componente propio en los an��lisis de factores, y adem��s se distinguen por su comportamiento: moderan la relaci��n entre la intenci��n de uso (que es el principal indicador de la aceptaci��n del usuario) y su predictor m��s fuerte, la utilidad percibida. Se presentan tambi��n resultados de menor importancia referentes a los efectos de los ECAs sobre los interfaces de los sistemas de di��logo y sobre los par��metros de percepci��n y las valoraciones de los usuarios que juegan un papel en conformar su aceptaci��n de la tecnolog��a. A pesar de que se observa un rendimiento de la interacci��n dialogada ligeramente mejor con ECAs, las opiniones subjetivas son muy similares entre los dos grupos experimentales (uno interactuando con un sistema de di��logo con ECA, y el otro sin ECA). Entre las peque��as diferencias encontradas entre los dos grupos destacan las siguientes: en el grupo experimental sin ECA (es decir, con interfaz s��lo de voz) se observ�� un efecto m��s directo de los problemas de di��logo (por ejemplo, errores de reconocimiento) sobre la percepci��n de robustez, mientras que el grupo con ECA tuvo una respuesta emocional m��s positiva cuando se produc��an problemas. Los ECAs parecen generar inicialmente expectativas m��s elevadas en cuanto a las capacidades del sistema, y los usuarios de este grupo se declaran m��s seguros de s�� mismos en su interacci��n. Por ��ltimo, se observan algunos indicios de efectos sociales de los ECAs: la ���amigabilidad ��� percibida los ECAs estaba correlada con un incremento la preocupaci��n por la seguridad. Asimismo, los usuarios del sistema con ECAs tend��an m��s a culparse a s�� mismos, en lugar de culpar al sistema, de los problemas de di��logo que pudieran surgir, mientras que se observ�� una ligera tendencia opuesta en el caso de los usuarios del sistema con interacci��n s��lo de voz. ABSTRACT This Thesis presents two related lines of research work contributing to the general fields of Human-Technology (or Machine) Interaction (HTI, or HMI), computational linguistics, and user experience evaluation. These two lines are the design and user-focused evaluation of advanced Human-Machine (or Technology) Interaction systems. The first part of the Thesis (Chapters 2 to 4) is centred on advanced HMI system design. Chapter 2 provides a background overview of the state of research in multimodal conversational systems. This sets the stage for the research work presented in the rest of the Thesis. Chapers 3 and 4 focus on two major aspects of HMI design in detail: a generalised dialogue manager for context-aware multimodal HMI, and embodied conversational agents (ECAs, or animated agents) to improve dialogue robustness, respectively. Chapter 3, on dialogue management, deals with how to handle information heterogeneity, both from the communication modalities or from external sensors. A highly abstracted architectural contribution based on State Chart XML is proposed. Chapter 4 presents a contribution for the internal representation of communication intentions and their translation into gestural sequences for an ECA, especially designed to improve robustness in critical dialogue situations such as when miscommunication occurs. We propose an extension of the functionality of Functional Mark-up Language, as envisaged in much of the work in the SAIBA framework. Our extension allows the representation of communication acts that carry intentions that are not for the interlocutor to know of, but which are made to influence him or her as well as the flow of the dialogue itself. This is achieved through a design element we have called the Communication Intention Base. Such r pr s ntation of ���non- clar ��� int ntions allows th construction of communication acts that carry several communication intentions simultaneously. Also in Chapter 4, an experimental system is described which allows (simulated) remote control to a home automation assistant, with biometric (speaker) authentication to grant access, featuring embodied conversation agents for each of the tasks. The discussion includes a description of the behavioural sequences for the ECAs, which were designed for specific dialogue situations with particular attention given to the objective of improving dialogue robustness. Chapters 5 to 7 form the evaluation part of the Thesis. Chapter 5 reviews evaluation approaches in the literature for information technologies, as well as in particular for speech-based interaction systems, that are useful precedents to the contributions of the present Thesis. The main evaluation precedents on which the work in this Thesis has built are the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), the Subjective Assessment of Speech System Interfaces (SASSI) tool, and ITU-T Recommendation P.851. Chapter 6 presents the author���s work in establishing an valuation framework and methodology applied to the users��� experience with multimodal HMI systems. A novel user-acceptance Subjective Quality Evaluation Framework was developed by the author specifically for this purpose. A class structure arises from two orthogonal sets of dimensions. First we identify three broad classes of parameters related with user acceptance: likeability factors (those that have to do with the experience of using the system), rejection factors (which can only have a negative valence) and perception of usefulness. Secondly, the class structure is further broken down into several ���user perception levels���; at the very least: an overall system-assessment level, task and goal-related levels, and an interface level (e.g., a dialogue system with or without an ECA). An empirical evaluation of the system described in Chapter 4 is presented in Chapter 7. The study was based on the abovementioned precedents in the literature, expanded with categories covering the inclusion of an ECA, the users��� s lf-assessed emotions, and particular rejection factors (privacy and security concerns). The Subjective Quality Evaluation Framework proposed in the previous chapter was also scrutinised. Factor analyses revealed an item structure very much related conceptually to the usefulness-likeability-rejection class division introduced above, thus giving it some empirical weight. Regression-based analysis revealed structures of dependencies, paths of interrelations, between the subjective and objective parameters considered. The central mediation effect, in the Technology Acceptance Model, of perceived usefulness on the dependency relationship of intention-to-use with perceived ease of use was confirmed in this study. Furthermore, the pattern of relationships was stronger for variables covering more broadly the likeability and usefulness categories in the Subjective Quality Evaluation Framework. Rejection factors were found to have a distinct presence as components in factor analyses, as well as distinct behaviour: they were found to moderate the relationship between intention-to-use (the main measure of user acceptance) and its strongest predictor, perceived usefulness. Insights of secondary importance are also given regarding the effect of ECAs on the interface of spoken dialogue systems and the dimensions of user perception and judgement attitude that may have a role in determining user acceptance of the technology. Despite observing slightly better performance values in the case of the system with the ECA, subjective opinions regarding both systems were, overall, very similar. Minor differences between two experimental groups (one interacting with an ECA, the other only through speech) include a more direct effect of dialogue problems (e.g., non-understandings) on perceived dialogue robustness for the voice-only interface test group, and a more positive emotional response for the ECA test group. Our findings further suggest that the ECA generates higher initial expectations, and users seem slightly more confident in their interaction with the ECA than do those without it. Finally, mild evidence of social effects of ECAs was also found: the perceived friendliness of the ECA increased security concerns, and ECA users may tend to blame themselves rather than the system when dialogue problems are encountered, while the opposite may be true for voice-only users.

Multimodal integration of functional and structural brain connectivity. An application to the characterization of Mild Cognitive Impairment

La investigaci��n para el conocimiento del cerebro es una ciencia joven, su inicio se remonta a Santiago Ram��n y Cajal en 1888. Desde esta fecha a nuestro tiempo la neurociencia ha avanzado mucho en el desarrollo de t��cnicas que permiten su estudio. Desde la neurociencia cognitiva hoy se explican muchos modelos que nos permiten acercar a nuestro entendimiento a capacidades cognitivas complejas. Aun as�� hablamos de una ciencia casi en pa��ales que tiene un lago recorrido por delante. Una de las claves del ��xito en los estudios de la funci��n cerebral ha sido convertirse en una disciplina que combina conocimientos de diversas ��reas: de la f��sica, de las matem��ticas, de la estad��stica y de la psicolog��a. Esta es la raz��n por la que a lo largo de este trabajo se entremezclan conceptos de diferentes campos con el objetivo de avanzar en el conocimiento de un tema tan complejo como el que nos ocupa: el entendimiento de la mente humana. Concretamente, esta tesis ha estado dirigida a la integraci��n multimodal de la magnetoencefalograf��a (MEG) y la resonancia magn��tica ponderada en difusi��n (dMRI). Estas t��cnicas son sensibles, respectivamente, a los campos magn��ticos emitidos por las corrientes neuronales, y a la microestructura de la materia blanca cerebral. A lo largo de este trabajo hemos visto que la combinaci��n de estas t��cnicas permiten descubrir sinergias estructurofuncionales en el procesamiento de la informaci��n en el cerebro sano y en el curso de patolog��as neurol��gicas. M��s espec��ficamente en este trabajo se ha estudiado la relaci��n entre la conectividad funcional y estructural y en c��mo fusionarlas. Para ello, se ha cuantificado la conectividad funcional mediante el estudio de la sincronizaci��n de fase o la correlaci��n de amplitudes entre series temporales, de esta forma se ha conseguido un ��ndice que mide la similitud entre grupos neuronales o regiones cerebrales. Adicionalmente, la cuantificaci��n de la conectividad estructural a partir de im��genes de resonancia magn��tica ponderadas en difusi��n, ha permitido hallar ��ndices de la integridad de materia blanca o de la fuerza de las conexiones estructurales entre regiones. Estas medidas fueron combinadas en los cap��tulos 3, 4 y 5 de este trabajo siguiendo tres aproximaciones que iban desde el nivel m��s bajo al m��s alto de integraci��n. Finalmente se utiliz�� la informaci��n fusionada de MEG y dMRI para la caracterizaci��n de grupos de sujetos con deterioro cognitivo leve, la detecci��n de esta patolog��a resulta relevante en la identificaci��n precoz de la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Esta tesis est�� dividida en seis cap��tulos. En el cap��tulos 1 se establece un contexto para la introducci��n de la connect��mica dentro de los campos de la neuroimagen y la neurociencia. Posteriormente en este cap��tulo se describen los objetivos de la tesis, y los objetivos espec��ficos de cada una de las publicaciones cient��ficas que resultaron de este trabajo. En el cap��tulo 2 se describen los m��todos para cada t��cnica que fue empleada: conectividad estructural, conectividad funcional en resting state, redes cerebrales complejas y teor��a de grafos y finalmente se describe la condici��n de deterioro cognitivo leve y el estado actual en la b��squeda de nuevos biomarcadores diagn��sticos. En los cap��tulos 3, 4 y 5 se han incluido los art��culos cient��ficos que fueron producidos a lo largo de esta tesis. Estos han sido incluidos en el formato de la revista en que fueron publicados, estando divididos en introducci��n, materiales y m��todos, resultados y discusi��n. Todos los m��todos que fueron empleados en los art��culos est��n descritos en el cap��tulo 2 de la tesis. Finalmente, en el cap��tulo 6 se concluyen los resultados generales de la tesis y se discuten de forma espec��fica los resultados de cada art��culo. ABSTRACT In this thesis I apply concepts from mathematics, physics and statistics to the neurosciences. This field benefits from the collaborative work of multidisciplinary teams where physicians, psychologists, engineers and other specialists fight for a common well: the understanding of the brain. Research on this field is still in its early years, being its birth attributed to the neuronal theory of Santiago Ramo��n y Cajal in 1888. In more than one hundred years only a very little percentage of the brain functioning has been discovered, and still much more needs to be explored. Isolated techniques aim at unraveling the system that supports our cognition, nevertheless in order to provide solid evidence in such a field multimodal techniques have arisen, with them we will be able to improve current knowledge about human cognition. Here we focus on the multimodal integration of magnetoencephalography (MEG) and diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging. These techniques are sensitive to the magnetic fields emitted by the neuronal currents and to the white matter microstructure, respectively. The combination of such techniques could bring up evidences about structural-functional synergies in the brain information processing and which part of this synergy fails in specific neurological pathologies. In particular, we are interested in the relationship between functional and structural connectivity, and how two integrate this information. We quantify the functional connectivity by studying the phase synchronization or the amplitude correlation between time series obtained by MEG, and so we get an index indicating similarity between neuronal entities, i.e. brain regions. In addition we quantify structural connectivity by performing diffusion tensor estimation from the diffusion weighted images, thus obtaining an indicator of the integrity of the white matter or, if preferred, the strength of the structural connections between regions. These quantifications are then combined following three different approaches, from the lowest to the highest level of integration, in chapters 3, 4 and 5. We finally apply the fused information to the characterization or prediction of mild cognitive impairment, a clinical entity which is considered as an early step in the continuum pathological process of dementia. The dissertation is divided in six chapters. In chapter 1 I introduce connectomics within the fields of neuroimaging and neuroscience. Later in this chapter we describe the objectives of this thesis, and the specific objectives of each of the scientific publications that were produced as result of this work. In chapter 2 I describe the methods for each of the techniques that were employed, namely structural connectivity, resting state functional connectivity, complex brain networks and graph theory, and finally, I describe the clinical condition of mild cognitive impairment and the current state of the art in the search for early biomarkers. In chapters 3, 4 and 5 I have included the scientific publications that were generated along this work. They have been included in in their original format and they contain introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion. All methods that were employed in these papers have been described in chapter 2. Finally, in chapter 6 I summarize all the results from this thesis, both locally for each of the scientific publications and globally for the whole work.

Short communication. Collection and characterisation of a population of Triticum boeoticum Boiss., a wild wheat species not previously found in the Mediterranean western region

En julio del 2010 se recolect�� una poblaci��n de trigo silvestre en una zona abandonada cerca de Madrid, Espa��a. Esta zona posee una biodiversidad bot��nica elevada y un tipo de suelo muy peculiar denominado ���arcillas verdes���. Se recogi�� una muestra de trigo y se multiplic�� y caracteriz�� para varios caracteres agro-morfol��gicos y subunidades de gluteninas. El n��mero cromos��mico 2n de las semillas demostr�� que es una especie diploide de trigo y los datos de caracterizaci��n indicaron que es Triticum boeoticum Boiss. Esta especie lleg�� probablemente como mala hierba del cultivo de esca��a que se produc��a en la zona hasta al menos la primera mitad del s. xix. Las caracter��sticas ed��ficas y clim��ticas del lugar y el hecho de que no haya referencias hasta ahora de esta especie en la zona oeste de la regi��n Mediterr��nea aumentan el valor de esta adquisici��n para la mejora del trigo. La nueva accesi��n se conserva en el Centro Nacional de Recursos Fitogen��ticos y se ha depositado una hoja de herbario en el Real Jard��n Bot��nico de Madrid

Communication Middleware for Distributed Hard Real-Time Systems in Java

Distributed real-time embedded systems are becoming increasingly important to society. More demands will be made on them and greater reliance will be placed on the delivery of their services. A relevant subset of them is high-integrity or hard real-time systems, where failure can cause loss of life, environmental harm, or signi���cant ���nancial loss. Additionally, the evolution of communication networks and paradigms as well as the necessity of demanding processing power and fault tolerance, motivated the interconnection between electronic devices; many of the communications have the possibility of transferring data at a high speed. The concept of distributed systems emerged as systems where different parts are executed on several nodes that interact with each other via a communication network. Java���s popularity, facilities and platform independence have made it an interesting language for the real-time and embedded community. This was the motivation for the development of RTSJ (Real-Time Speci���cation for Java), which is a language extension intended to allow the development of real-time systems. The use of Java in the development of high-integrity systems requires strict development and testing techniques. However, RTJS includes a number of language features that are forbidden in such systems. In the context of the HIJA project, the HRTJ (Hard Real-Time Java) pro���le was developed to de���ne a robust subset of the language that is amenable to static analysis for high-integrity system certi���cation. Currently, a speci���cation under the Java community process (JSR- 302) is being developed. Its purpose is to de���ne those capabilities needed to create safety critical applications with Java technology called Safety Critical Java (SCJ). However, neither RTSJ nor its pro���les provide facilities to develop distributed realtime applications. This is an important issue, as most of the current and future systems will be distributed. The Distributed RTSJ (DRTSJ) Expert Group was created under the Java community process (JSR-50) in order to de���ne appropriate abstractions to overcome this problem. Currently there is no formal speci���cation. The aim of this thesis is to develop a communication middleware that is suitable for the development of distributed hard real-time systems in Java, based on the integration between the RMI (Remote Method Invocation) model and the HRTJ pro���le. It has been designed and implemented keeping in mind the main requirements such as the predictability and reliability in the timing behavior and the resource usage. iThe design starts with the de���nition of a computational model which identi���es among other things: the communication model, most appropriate underlying network protocols, the analysis model, and a subset of Java for hard real-time systems. In the design, the remote references are the basic means for building distributed applications which are associated with all non-functional parameters and resources needed to implement synchronous or asynchronous remote invocations with real-time attributes. The proposed middleware separates the resource allocation from the execution itself by de���ning two phases and a speci���c threading mechanism that guarantees a suitable timing behavior. It also includes mechanisms to monitor the functional and the timing behavior. It provides independence from network protocol de���ning a network interface and modules. The JRMP protocol was modi���ed to include two phases, non-functional parameters, and message size optimizations. Although serialization is one of the fundamental operations to ensure proper data transmission, current implementations are not suitable for hard real-time systems and there are no alternatives. This thesis proposes a predictable serialization that introduces a new compiler to generate optimized code according to the computational model. The proposed solution has the advantage of allowing us to schedule the communications and to adjust the memory usage at compilation time. In order to validate the design and the implementation a demanding validation process was carried out with emphasis in the functional behavior, the memory usage, the processor usage (the end-to-end response time and the response time in each functional block) and the network usage (real consumption according to the calculated consumption). The results obtained in an industrial application developed by Thales Avionics (a Flight Management System) and in exhaustive tests show that the design and the prototype are reliable for industrial applications with strict timing requirements. Los sistemas empotrados y distribuidos de tiempo real son cada vez m��s importantes para la sociedad. Su demanda aumenta y cada vez m��s dependemos de los servicios que proporcionan. Los sistemas de alta integridad constituyen un subconjunto de gran importancia. Se caracterizan por que un fallo en su funcionamiento puede causar p��rdida de vidas humanas, da��os en el medio ambiente o cuantiosas p��rdidas econ��micas. La necesidad de satisfacer requisitos temporales estrictos, hace m��s complejo su desarrollo. Mientras que los sistemas empotrados se sigan expandiendo en nuestra sociedad, es necesario garantizar un coste de desarrollo ajustado mediante el uso t��cnicas adecuadas en su dise��o, mantenimiento y certi���caci��n. En concreto, se requiere una tecnolog��a ���exible e independiente del hardware. La evoluci��n de las redes y paradigmas de comunicaci��n, as�� como la necesidad de mayor potencia de c��mputo y de tolerancia a fallos, ha motivado la interconexi��n de dispositivos electr��nicos. Los mecanismos de comunicaci��n permiten la transferencia de datos con alta velocidad de transmisi��n. En este contexto, el concepto de sistema distribuido ha emergido como sistemas donde sus componentes se ejecutan en varios nodos en paralelo y que interact��an entre ellos mediante redes de comunicaciones. Un concepto interesante son los sistemas de tiempo real neutrales respecto a la plataforma de ejecuci��n. Se caracterizan por la falta de conocimiento de esta plataforma durante su dise��o. Esta propiedad es relevante, por que conviene que se ejecuten en la mayor variedad de arquitecturas, tienen una vida media mayor de diez anos y el lugar �� donde se ejecutan puede variar. El lenguaje de programaci��n Java es una buena base para el desarrollo de este tipo de sistemas. Por este motivo se ha creado RTSJ (Real-Time Speci���cation for Java), que es una extensi��n del lenguaje para permitir el desarrollo de sistemas de tiempo real. Sin embargo, RTSJ no proporciona facilidades para el desarrollo de aplicaciones distribuidas de tiempo real. Es una limitaci��n importante dado que la mayor��a de los actuales y futuros sistemas ser��n distribuidos. El grupo DRTSJ (DistributedRTSJ) fue creado bajo el proceso de la comunidad de Java (JSR-50) con el ���n de de���nir las abstracciones que aborden dicha limitaci��n, pero en la actualidad aun no existe una especi���cacion formal. El objetivo de esta tesis es desarrollar un middleware de comunicaciones para el desarrollo de sistemas distribuidos de tiempo real en Java, basado en la integraci��n entre el modelo de RMI (Remote Method Invocation) y el per���l HRTJ. Ha sido dise��ado e implementado teniendo en cuenta los requisitos principales, como la predecibilidad y la con���abilidad del comportamiento temporal y el uso de recursos. El dise��o parte de la de���nici��n de un modelo computacional el cual identi���ca entre otras cosas: el modelo de comunicaciones, los protocolos de red subyacentes m��s adecuados, el modelo de an��lisis, y un subconjunto de Java para sistemas de tiempo real cr��tico. En el dise��o, las referencias remotas son el medio b��sico para construcci��n de aplicaciones distribuidas las cuales son asociadas a todos los par��metros no funcionales y los recursos necesarios para la ejecuci��n de invocaciones remotas s��ncronas o as��ncronas con atributos de tiempo real. El middleware propuesto separa la asignaci��n de recursos de la propia ejecuci��n de���niendo dos fases y un mecanismo de hebras especi���co que garantiza un comportamiento temporal adecuado. Adem��s se ha incluido mecanismos para supervisar el comportamiento funcional y temporal. Se ha buscado independencia del protocolo de red de���niendo una interfaz de red y m��dulos espec�����cos. Tambi��n se ha modi���cado el protocolo JRMP para incluir diferentes fases, par��metros no funcionales y optimizaciones de los tama��os de los mensajes. Aunque la serializaci��n es una de las operaciones fundamentales para asegurar la adecuada transmisi��n de datos, las actuales implementaciones no son adecuadas para sistemas cr��ticos y no hay alternativas. Este trabajo propone una serializaci��n predecible que ha implicado el desarrollo de un nuevo compilador para la generaci��n de c��digo optimizado acorde al modelo computacional. La soluci��n propuesta tiene la ventaja que en tiempo de compilaci��n nos permite plani���car las comunicaciones y ajustar el uso de memoria. Con el objetivo de validar el dise��o e implementaci��n se ha llevado a cabo un exigente proceso de validaci��n con ��nfasis en: el comportamiento funcional, el uso de memoria, el uso del procesador (tiempo de respuesta de extremo a extremo y en cada uno de los bloques funcionales) y el uso de la red (consumo real conforme al estimado). Los buenos resultados obtenidos en una aplicaci��n industrial desarrollada por Thales Avionics (un sistema de gesti��n de vuelo) y en las pruebas exhaustivas han demostrado que el dise��o y el prototipo son ���ables para aplicaciones industriales con estrictos requisitos temporales.