Remarks on Compositionality (with reference to Gennadij Zeldoviè's article “On Russian Dative Reflexive Constructions: Accidental or Compositional”)

Zeldovič’s article “On Russian Dative Reflexive Constructions: Accidental or Compositional” is very interesting. It contains a good deal of insightful observations and is painstakingly argued. Its research object is the Russian dative reflexive construction (DRC) like Ивану не работается ‘Ivan does not feel like reading’. The aim of the article is to show that the DRC is fully compositional. Like many other works by Zeldovič, the article is written from the radical-pragmatic perspective and constitutes a very good illustration of this trend in linguistic research. The language material that it analyzes has often been investigated within more traditional frameworks, especially in Russian linguistics, which makes Zeldovič’s novel approach to the old problem particularly interesting. In this short note I would like (by way of discussion) to address two problems connected not so much with the DRC itself as with methodological issues concerning compositionality. I will dwell on two aspects: on the question of how we understand the very concept of compositionality, and what instruments we employ to demonstrate it.

Lower bound cost estimation for logic programs

It is generally recognized that information about the runtime cost of computations can be useful for a variety of applications, including program transformation, granularity control during parallel execution, and query optimization in deductive databases. Most of the work to date on compile-time cost estimation of logic programs has focused on the estimation of upper bounds on costs. However, in many applications, such as parallel implementations on distributed-memory machines, one would prefer to work with lower bounds instead. The problem with estimating lower bounds is that in general, it is necessary to account for the possibility of failure of head unification, leading to a trivial lower bound of 0. In this paper, we show how, given type and mode information about procedures in a logic program, it is possible to (semi-automatically) derive nontrivial lower bounds on their computational costs. We also discuss the cost analysis for the special and frequent case of divide-and-conquer programs and show how —as a pragmatic short-term solution —it may be possible to obtain useful results simply by identifying and treating divide-and-conquer programs specially.

Contradictio in terminis: dialéctica de la ambigüedad en la arquitectura contemporánea

The twentieth century brought a new sensibility characterized by the discredit of cartesian rationality and the weakening of universal truths, related with aesthetic values as order, proportion and harmony. In the middle of the century, theorists such as Theodor Adorno, Rudolf Arnheim and Anton Ehrenzweig warned about the transformation developed by the artistic field. Contemporary aesthetics seemed to have a new goal: to deny the idea of art as an organized, finished and coherent structure. The order had lost its privileged position. Disorder, probability, arbitrariness, accidentality, randomness, chaos, fragmentation, indeterminacy... Gradually new terms were coined by aesthetic criticism to explain what had been happening since the beginning of the century. The first essays on the matter sought to provide new interpretative models based on, among other arguments, the phenomenology of perception, the recent discoveries of quantum mechanics, the deeper layers of the psyche or the information theories. Overall, were worthy attempts to give theoretical content to a situation as obvious as devoid of founding charter. Finally, in 1962, Umberto Eco brought together all this efforts by proposing a single theoretical frame in his book Opera Aperta. According to his point of view, all of the aesthetic production of twentieth century had a characteristic in common: its capacity to express multiplicity. For this reason, he considered that the nature of contemporary art was, above all, ambiguous. The aim of this research is to clarify the consequences of the incorporation of ambiguity in architectural theoretical discourse. We should start making an accurate analysis of this concept. However, this task is quite difficult because ambiguity does not allow itself to be clearly defined. This concept has the disadvantage that its signifier is as imprecise as its signified. In addition, the negative connotations that ambiguity still has outside the aesthetic field, stigmatizes this term and makes its use problematic. Another problem of ambiguity is that the contemporary subject is able to locate it in all situations. This means that in addition to distinguish ambiguity in contemporary productions, so does in works belonging to remote ages and styles. For that reason, it could be said that everything is ambiguous. And that’s correct, because somehow ambiguity is present in any creation of the imperfect human being. However, as Eco, Arnheim and Ehrenzweig pointed out, there are two major differences between current and past contexts. One affects the subject and the other the object. First, it’s the contemporary subject, and no other, who has acquired the ability to value and assimilate ambiguity. Secondly, ambiguity was an unexpected aesthetic result in former periods, while in contemporary object it has been codified and is deliberately present. In any case, as Eco did, we consider appropriate the use of the term ambiguity to refer to the contemporary aesthetic field. Any other term with more specific meaning would only show partial and limited aspects of a situation quite complex and difficult to diagnose. Opposed to what normally might be expected, in this case ambiguity is the term that fits better due to its particular lack of specificity. In fact, this lack of specificity is what allows to assign a dynamic condition to the idea of ambiguity that in other terms would hardly be operative. Thus, instead of trying to define the idea of ambiguity, we will analyze how it has evolved and its consequences in architectural discipline. Instead of trying to define what it is, we will examine what its presence has supposed in each moment. We will deal with ambiguity as a constant presence that has always been latent in architectural production but whose nature has been modified over time. Eco, in the mid-twentieth century, discerned between classical ambiguity and contemporary ambiguity. Currently, half a century later, the challenge is to discern whether the idea of ambiguity has remained unchanged or have suffered a new transformation. What this research will demonstrate is that it’s possible to detect a new transformation that has much to do with the cultural and aesthetic context of last decades: the transition from modernism to postmodernism. This assumption leads us to establish two different levels of contemporary ambiguity: each one related to one these periods. The first level of ambiguity is widely well-known since many years. Its main characteristics are a codified multiplicity, an interpretative freedom and an active subject who gives conclusion to an object that is incomplete or indefinite. This level of ambiguity is related to the idea of indeterminacy, concept successfully introduced into contemporary aesthetic language. The second level of ambiguity has been almost unnoticed for architectural criticism, although it has been identified and studied in other theoretical disciplines. Much of the work of Fredric Jameson and François Lyotard shows reasonable evidences that the aesthetic production of postmodernism has transcended modern ambiguity to reach a new level in which, despite of the existence of multiplicity, the interpretative freedom and the active subject have been questioned, and at last denied. In this period ambiguity seems to have reached a new level in which it’s no longer possible to obtain a conclusive and complete interpretation of the object because it has became an unreadable device. The postmodern production offers a kind of inaccessible multiplicity and its nature is deeply contradictory. This hypothetical transformation of the idea of ambiguity has an outstanding analogy with that shown in the poetic analysis made by William Empson, published in 1936 in his Seven Types of Ambiguity. Empson established different levels of ambiguity and classified them according to their poetic effect. This layout had an ascendant logic towards incoherence. In seventh level, where ambiguity is higher, he located the contradiction between irreconcilable opposites. It could be said that contradiction, once it undermines the coherence of the object, was the better way that contemporary aesthetics found to confirm the Hegelian judgment, according to which art would ultimately reject its capacity to express truth. Much of the transformation of architecture throughout last century is related to the active involvement of ambiguity in its theoretical discourse. In modern architecture ambiguity is present afterwards, in its critical review made by theoreticians like Colin Rowe, Manfredo Tafuri and Bruno Zevi. The publication of several studies about Mannerism in the forties and fifties rescued certain virtues of an historical style that had been undervalued due to its deviation from Renacentist canon. Rowe, Tafuri and Zevi, among others, pointed out the similarities between Mannerism and certain qualities of modern architecture, both devoted to break previous dogmas. The recovery of Mannerism allowed joining ambiguity and modernity for first time in the same sentence. In postmodernism, on the other hand, ambiguity is present ex-professo, developing a prominent role in the theoretical discourse of this period. The distance between its analytical identification and its operational use quickly disappeared because of structuralism, an analytical methodology with the aspiration of becoming a modus operandi. Under its influence, architecture began to be identified and studied as a language. Thus, postmodern theoretical project discerned between the components of architectural language and developed them separately. Consequently, there is not only one, but three projects related to postmodern contradiction: semantic project, syntactic project and pragmatic project. Leading these projects are those prominent architects whose work manifested an especial interest in exploring and developing the potential of the use of contradiction in architecture. Thus, Robert Venturi, Peter Eisenman and Rem Koolhaas were who established the main features through which architecture developed the dialectics of ambiguity, in its last and extreme level, as a theoretical project in each component of architectural language. Robert Venturi developed a new interpretation of architecture based on its semantic component, Peter Eisenman did the same with its syntactic component, and also did Rem Koolhaas with its pragmatic component. With this approach this research aims to establish a new reflection on the architectural transformation from modernity to postmodernity. Also, it can serve to light certain aspects still unaware that have shaped the architectural heritage of past decades, consequence of a fruitful relationship between architecture and ambiguity and its provocative consummation in a contradictio in terminis. Esta investigación centra su atención fundamentalmente sobre las repercusiones de la incorporación de la ambigüedad en forma de contradicción en el discurso arquitectónico postmoderno, a través de cada uno de sus tres proyectos teóricos. Está estructurada, por tanto, en torno a un capítulo principal titulado Dialéctica de la ambigüedad como proyecto teórico postmoderno, que se desglosa en tres, de títulos: Proyecto semántico. Robert Venturi; Proyecto sintáctico. Peter Eisenman; y Proyecto pragmático. Rem Koolhaas. El capítulo central se complementa con otros dos situados al inicio. El primero, titulado Dialéctica de la ambigüedad contemporánea. Una aproximación realiza un análisis cronológico de la evolución que ha experimentado la idea de la ambigüedad en la teoría estética del siglo XX, sin entrar aún en cuestiones arquitectónicas. El segundo, titulado Dialéctica de la ambigüedad como crítica del proyecto moderno se ocupa de examinar la paulatina incorporación de la ambigüedad en la revisión crítica de la modernidad, que sería de vital importancia para posibilitar su posterior introducción operativa en la postmodernidad. Un último capítulo, situado al final del texto, propone una serie de Proyecciones que, a tenor de lo analizado en los capítulos anteriores, tratan de establecer una relectura del contexto arquitectónico actual y su evolución posible, considerando, en todo momento, que la reflexión en torno a la ambigüedad todavía hoy permite vislumbrar nuevos horizontes discursivos. Cada doble página de la Tesis sintetiza la estructura tripartita del capítulo central y, a grandes rasgos, la principal herramienta metodológica utilizada en la investigación. De este modo, la triple vertiente semántica, sintáctica y pragmática con que se ha identificado al proyecto teórico postmoderno se reproduce aquí en una distribución específica de imágenes, notas a pie de página y cuerpo principal del texto. En la columna de la izquierda están colocadas las imágenes que acompañan al texto principal. Su distribución atiende a criterios estéticos y compositivos, cualificando, en la medida de lo posible, su condición semántica. A continuación, a su derecha, están colocadas las notas a pie de página. Su disposición es en columna y cada nota está colocada a la misma altura que su correspondiente llamada en el texto principal. Su distribución reglada, su valor como notación y su posible equiparación con una estructura profunda aluden a su condición sintáctica. Finalmente, el cuerpo principal del texto ocupa por completo la mitad derecha de cada doble página. Concebido como un relato continuo, sin apenas interrupciones, su papel como responsable de satisfacer las demandas discursivas que plantea una investigación doctoral está en correspondencia con su condición pragmática.

Some framework ideas for software engineering education

It is difficult, if not impossible, to find something that is not changing in computer technology: circuits, architectures, languages, methods, fields of application ... The "central object" itself of this brand of engineering, software, represents such a diverse reality (many objects) that the fact that it has only one name gives rise to considerable confusion. This issue, among others, was taken up by Fox (1) and, at this point, I would like to underline that it is more of a pragmatic issue than an academic one. Thus, Software Engineering Education moves in an unstable, undefined'world. This axiom governs and limits the. validity of all educational proposals in the area of Software Engineering and, thereforer all the ideas presented in this paper.

Los géneros lingüísticos científicos y técnicos. Aspectos pragmáticos y convencionales

Se analiza el concepto de género lingüístico contrastándolo con el de tipo de texto. Se describen las características de los géneros científicos y se relacionan y comentan los más frecuentemente utilizados por la comunidad científica. Se detallan los aspectos organizativos de cada género de acuerdo con las convenciones establecidas por la comunidad discursiva a la que se alude.This paper deals with the concepts of discourse, text, text-type and genre within the context of English for Science and Technology. There is an attempt to establish their boundaries, at times unclear, with the purpose of their clarification, following contextual reference and conventional aspects of the discourse community. Examples of the use of these terms by different authors are discussed, reaching the conclusion that texts are the material realisation of discourse whereas genre represents the pragmatic dimension of a type of text, constructed according to the purpose assigned to it by the discourse community. Taking into account the communicative purpose of the text producer and the scientific community where they occur, several genre texts are described, which should be of interest for the teaching of English in academic settings.

Método para el análisis independiente de problemas

habilidades de comprensión y resolución de problemas. Tanto es así que se puede afirmar con rotundidad que no existe el método perfecto para cada una de las etapas de desarrollo y tampoco existe el modelo de ciclo de vida perfecto: cada nuevo problema que se plantea es diferente a los anteriores en algún aspecto y esto hace que técnicas que funcionaron en proyectos anteriores fracasen en los proyectos nuevos. Por ello actualmente se realiza un planteamiento integrador que pretende utilizar en cada caso las técnicas, métodos y herramientas más acordes con las características del problema planteado al ingeniero. Bajo este punto de vista se plantean nuevos problemas. En primer lugar está la selección de enfoques de desarrollo. Si no existe el mejor enfoque, ¿cómo se hace para elegir el más adecuado de entre el conjunto de los existentes? Un segundo problema estriba en la relación entre las etapas de análisis y diseño. En este sentido existen dos grandes riesgos. Por un lado, se puede hacer un análisis del problema demasiado superficial, con lo que se produce una excesiva distancia entre el análisis y el diseño que muchas veces imposibilita el paso de uno a otro. Por otro lado, se puede optar por un análisis en términos del diseño que provoca que no cumpla su objetivo de centrarse en el problema, sino que se convierte en una primera versión de la solución, lo que se conoce como diseño preliminar. Como consecuencia de lo anterior surge el dilema del análisis, que puede plantearse como sigue: para cada problema planteado hay que elegir las técnicas más adecuadas, lo que requiere que se conozcan las características del problema. Para ello, a su vez, se debe analizar el problema, eligiendo una técnica antes de conocerlo. Si la técnica utiliza términos de diseño entonces se ha precondicionado el paradigma de solución y es posible que no sea el más adecuado para resolver el problema. En último lugar están las barreras pragmáticas que frenan la expansión del uso de métodos con base formal, dificultando su aplicación en la práctica cotidiana. Teniendo en cuenta todos los problemas planteados, se requieren métodos de análisis del problema que cumplan una serie de objetivos, el primero de los cuales es la necesidad de una base formal, con el fin de evitar la ambigüedad y permitir verificar la corrección de los modelos generados. Un segundo objetivo es la independencia de diseño: se deben utilizar términos que no tengan reflejo directo en el diseño, para que permitan centrarse en las características del problema. Además los métodos deben permitir analizar problemas de cualquier tipo: algorítmicos, de soporte a la decisión o basados en el conocimiento, entre otros. En siguiente lugar están los objetivos relacionados con aspectos pragmáticos. Por un lado deben incorporar una notación textual formal pero no matemática, de forma que se facilite su validación y comprensión por personas sin conocimientos matemáticos profundos pero al mismo tiempo sea lo suficientemente rigurosa para facilitar su verificación. Por otro lado, se requiere una notación gráfica complementaria para representar los modelos, de forma que puedan ser comprendidos y validados cómodamente por parte de los clientes y usuarios. Esta tesis doctoral presenta SETCM, un método de análisis que cumple estos objetivos. Para ello se han definido todos los elementos que forman los modelos de análisis usando una terminología independiente de paradigmas de diseño y se han formalizado dichas definiciones usando los elementos fundamentales de la teoría de conjuntos: elementos, conjuntos y relaciones entre conjuntos. Por otro lado se ha definido un lenguaje formal para representar los elementos de los modelos de análisis – evitando en lo posible el uso de notaciones matemáticas – complementado con una notación gráfica que permite representar de forma visual las partes más relevantes de los modelos. El método propuesto ha sido sometido a una intensa fase de experimentación, durante la que fue aplicado a 13 casos de estudio, todos ellos proyectos reales que han concluido en productos transferidos a entidades públicas o privadas. Durante la experimentación se ha evaluado la adecuación de SETCM para el análisis de problemas de distinto tamaño y en sistemas cuyo diseño final usaba paradigmas diferentes e incluso paradigmas mixtos. También se ha evaluado su uso por analistas con distinto nivel de experiencia – noveles, intermedios o expertos – analizando en todos los casos la curva de aprendizaje, con el fin de averiguar si es fácil de aprender su uso, independientemente de si se conoce o no alguna otra técnica de análisis. Por otro lado se ha estudiado la capacidad de ampliación de modelos generados con SETCM, para comprobar si permite abordar proyectos realizados en varias fases, en los que el análisis de una fase consista en ampliar el análisis de la fase anterior. En resumidas cuentas, se ha tratado de evaluar la capacidad de integración de SETCM en una organización como la técnica de análisis preferida para el desarrollo de software. Los resultados obtenidos tras esta experimentación han sido muy positivos, habiéndose alcanzado un alto grado de cumplimiento de todos los objetivos planteados al definir el método.---ABSTRACT---Software development is an inherently complex activity, which requires specific abilities of problem comprehension and solving. It is so difficult that it can even be said that there is no perfect method for each of the development stages and that there is no perfect life cycle model: each new problem is different to the precedent ones in some respect and the techniques that worked in other problems can fail in the new ones. Given that situation, the current trend is to integrate different methods, tools and techniques, using the best suited for each situation. This trend, however, raises some new problems. The first one is the selection of development approaches. If there is no a manifestly single best approach, how does one go about choosing an approach from the array of available options? The second problem has to do with the relationship between the analysis and design phases. This relation can lead to two major risks. On one hand, the analysis could be too shallow and far away from the design, making it very difficult to perform the transition between them. On the other hand, the analysis could be expressed using design terminology, thus becoming more a kind of preliminary design than a model of the problem to be solved. In third place there is the analysis dilemma, which can be expressed as follows. The developer has to choose the most adequate techniques for each problem, and to make this decision it is necessary to know the most relevant properties of the problem. This implies that the developer has to analyse the problem, choosing an analysis method before really knowing the problem. If the chosen technique uses design terminology then the solution paradigm has been preconditioned and it is possible that, once the problem is well known, that paradigm wouldn’t be the chosen one. The last problem consists of some pragmatic barriers that limit the applicability of formal based methods, making it difficult to use them in current practice. In order to solve these problems there is a need for analysis methods that fulfil several goals. The first one is the need of a formal base, which prevents ambiguity and allows the verification of the analysis models. The second goal is design-independence: the analysis should use a terminology different from the design, to facilitate a real comprehension of the problem under study. In third place the analysis method should allow the developer to study different kinds of problems: algorithmic, decision-support, knowledge based, etc. Next there are two goals related to pragmatic aspects. Firstly, the methods should have a non mathematical but formal textual notation. This notation will allow people without deep mathematical knowledge to understand and validate the resulting models, without losing the needed rigour for verification. Secondly, the methods should have a complementary graphical notation to make more natural the understanding and validation of the relevant parts of the analysis. This Thesis proposes such a method, called SETCM. The elements conforming the analysis models have been defined using a terminology that is independent from design paradigms. Those terms have been then formalised using the main concepts of the set theory: elements, sets and correspondences between sets. In addition, a formal language has been created, which avoids the use of mathematical notations. Finally, a graphical notation has been defined, which can visually represent the most relevant elements of the models. The proposed method has been thoroughly tested during the experimentation phase. It has been used to perform the analysis of 13 actual projects, all of them resulting in transferred products. This experimentation allowed evaluating the adequacy of SETCM for the analysis of problems of varying size, whose final design used different paradigms and even mixed ones. The use of the method by people with different levels of expertise was also evaluated, along with the corresponding learning curve, in order to assess if the method is easy to learn, independently of previous knowledge on other analysis techniques. In addition, the expandability of the analysis models was evaluated, assessing if the technique was adequate for projects organised in incremental steps, in which the analysis of one step grows from the precedent models. The final goal was to assess if SETCM can be used inside an organisation as the preferred analysis method for software development. The obtained results have been very positive, as SETCM has obtained a high degree of fulfilment of the goals stated for the method.

Multi-dimensional classification of GABAergic interneurons with Bayesian network-modeled label uncertainty

Abstract Interneuron classification is an important and long-debated topic in neuroscience. A recent study provided a data set of digitally reconstructed interneurons classified by 42 leading neuroscientists according to a pragmatic classification scheme composed of five categorical variables, namely, of the interneuron type and four features of axonal morphology. From this data set we now learned a model which can classify interneurons, on the basis of their axonal morphometric parameters, into these five descriptive variables simultaneously. Because of differences in opinion among the neuroscientists, especially regarding neuronal type, for many interneurons we lacked a unique, agreed-upon classification, which we could use to guide model learning. Instead, we guided model learning with a probability distribution over the neuronal type and the axonal features, obtained, for each interneuron, from the neuroscientists’ classification choices. We conveniently encoded such probability distributions with Bayesian networks, calling them label Bayesian networks (LBNs), and developed a method to predict them. This method predicts an LBN by forming a probabilistic consensus among the LBNs of the interneurons most similar to the one being classified. We used 18 axonal morphometric parameters as predictor variables, 13 of which we introduce in this paper as quantitative counterparts to the categorical axonal features. We were able to accurately predict interneuronal LBNs. Furthermore, when extracting crisp (i.e., non-probabilistic) predictions from the predicted LBNs, our method outperformed related work on interneuron classification. Our results indicate that our method is adequate for multi-dimensional classification of interneurons with probabilistic labels. Moreover, the introduced morphometric parameters are good predictors of interneuron type and the four features of axonal morphology and thus may serve as objective counterparts to the subjective, categorical axonal features.

Multi-dimensional classification of GABAergic interneurons with Bayesian network-modeled label uncertainty

Interneuron classification is an important and long-debated topic in neuroscience. A recent study provided a data set of digitally reconstructed interneurons classified by 42 leading neuroscientists according to a pragmatic classification scheme composed of five categorical variables, namely, of the interneuron type and four features of axonal morphology. From this data set we now learned a model which can classify interneurons, on the basis of their axonal morphometric parameters, into these five descriptive variables simultaneously. Because of differences in opinion among the neuroscientists, especially regarding neuronal type, for many interneurons we lacked a unique, agreed-upon classification, which we could use to guide model learning. Instead, we guided model learning with a probability distribution over the neuronal type and the axonal features, obtained, for each interneuron, from the neuroscientists’ classification choices. We conveniently encoded such probability distributions with Bayesian networks, calling them label Bayesian networks (LBNs), and developed a method to predict them. This method predicts an LBN by forming a probabilistic consensus among the LBNs of the interneurons most similar to the one being classified. We used 18 axonal morphometric parameters as predictor variables, 13 of which we introduce in this paper as quantitative counterparts to the categorical axonal features. We were able to accurately predict interneuronal LBNs. Furthermore, when extracting crisp (i.e., non-probabilistic) predictions from the predicted LBNs, our method outperformed related work on interneuron classification. Our results indicate that our method is adequate for multi-dimensional classification of interneurons with probabilistic labels. Moreover, the introduced morphometric parameters are good predictors of interneuron type and the four features of axonal morphology and thus may serve as objective counterparts to the subjective, categorical axonal features.

Evaluating a web-based clinical decision support system for language disorders screening in a nursery school

Background: Early and effective identification of developmental disorders during childhood remains a critical task for the international community. The second highest prevalence of common developmental disorders in children are language delays, which are frequently the first symptoms of a possible disorder. Objective: This paper evaluates a Web-based Clinical Decision Support System (CDSS) whose aim is to enhance the screening of language disorders at a nursery school. The common lack of early diagnosis of language disorders led us to deploy an easy-to-use CDSS in order to evaluate its accuracy in early detection of language pathologies. This CDSS can be used by pediatricians to support the screening of language disorders in primary care. Methods: This paper details the evaluation results of the ?Gades? CDSS at a nursery school with 146 children, 12 educators, and 1 language therapist. The methodology embraces two consecutive phases. The first stage involves the observation of each child?s language abilities, carried out by the educators, to facilitate the evaluation of language acquisition level performed by a language therapist. Next, the same language therapist evaluates the reliability of the observed results. Results: The Gades CDSS was integrated to provide the language therapist with the required clinical information. The validation process showed a global 83.6% (122/146) success rate in language evaluation and a 7% (7/94) rate of non-accepted system decisions within the range of children from 0 to 3 years old. The system helped language therapists to identify new children with potential disorders who required further evaluation. This process will revalidate the CDSS output and allow the enhancement of early detection of language disorders in children. The system does need minor refinement, since the therapists disagreed with some questions from the CDSS knowledge base (KB) and suggested adding a few questions about speech production and pragmatic abilities. The refinement of the KB will address these issues and include the requested improvements, with the support of the experts who took part in the original KB development. Conclusions: This research demonstrated the benefit of a Web-based CDSS to monitor children?s neurodevelopment via the early detection of language delays at a nursery school. Current next steps focus on the design of a model that includes pseudo auto-learning capacity, supervised by experts.

Classifying GABAergic interneurons with semi-supervised projected model-based clustering

Objectives: A recently introduced pragmatic scheme promises to be a useful catalog of interneuron names.We sought to automatically classify digitally reconstructed interneuronal morphologies according tothis scheme. Simultaneously, we sought to discover possible subtypes of these types that might emergeduring automatic classification (clustering). We also investigated which morphometric properties weremost relevant for this classification.Materials and methods: A set of 118 digitally reconstructed interneuronal morphologies classified into thecommon basket (CB), horse-tail (HT), large basket (LB), and Martinotti (MA) interneuron types by 42 of theworld?s leading neuroscientists, quantified by five simple morphometric properties of the axon and fourof the dendrites. We labeled each neuron with the type most commonly assigned to it by the experts. Wethen removed this class information for each type separately, and applied semi-supervised clustering tothose cells (keeping the others? cluster membership fixed), to assess separation from other types and lookfor the formation of new groups (subtypes). We performed this same experiment unlabeling the cells oftwo types at a time, and of half the cells of a single type at a time. The clustering model is a finite mixtureof Gaussians which we adapted for the estimation of local (per-cluster) feature relevance. We performedthe described experiments on three different subsets of the data, formed according to how many expertsagreed on type membership: at least 18 experts (the full data set), at least 21 (73 neurons), and at least26 (47 neurons).Results: Interneurons with more reliable type labels were classified more accurately. We classified HTcells with 100% accuracy, MA cells with 73% accuracy, and CB and LB cells with 56% and 58% accuracy,respectively. We identified three subtypes of the MA type, one subtype of CB and LB types each, andno subtypes of HT (it was a single, homogeneous type). We got maximum (adapted) Silhouette widthand ARI values of 1, 0.83, 0.79, and 0.42, when unlabeling the HT, CB, LB, and MA types, respectively,confirming the quality of the formed cluster solutions. The subtypes identified when unlabeling a singletype also emerged when unlabeling two types at a time, confirming their validity. Axonal morphometricproperties were more relevant that dendritic ones, with the axonal polar histogram length in the [pi, 2pi) angle interval being particularly useful.Conclusions: The applied semi-supervised clustering method can accurately discriminate among CB, HT, LB, and MA interneuron types while discovering potential subtypes, and is therefore useful for neuronal classification. The discovery of potential subtypes suggests that some of these types are more heteroge-neous that previously thought. Finally, axonal variables seem to be more relevant than dendritic ones fordistinguishing among the CB, HT, LB, and MA interneuron types.

Supporting patient screening to identify suitable clinical trials.

To support the efficient execution of post-genomic multi-centric clinical trials in breast cancer we propose a solution that streamlines the assessment of the eligibility of patients for available trials. The assessment of the eligibility of a patient for a trial requires evaluating whether each eligibility criterion is satisfied and is often a time consuming and manual task. The main focus in the literature has been on proposing different methods for modelling and formalizing the eligibility criteria. However the current adoption of these approaches in clinical care is limited. Less effort has been dedicated to the automatic matching of criteria to the patient data managed in clinical care. We address both aspects and propose a scalable, efficient and pragmatic patient screening solution enabling automatic evaluation of eligibility of patients for a relevant set of trials. This covers the flexible formalization of criteria and of other relevant trial metadata and the efficient management of these representations.

Estudios y herramientas para la evaluación y la mejora de la motivación en la ingeniería del software

Comprender y estimular la motivación resulta crucial para favorecer el rendimiento de los estudiantes universitarios y profesionales de diversos ámbitos de conocimiento, como el de la Ingeniería del Software. Actualmente, este sector está demandando soluciones científico-tecnológicas para trabajar de una manera práctica y sistemática sobre elementos motivacionales como la satisfacción por el estudio y el trabajo, el aprendizaje activo o las relaciones interpersonales. El objetivo de esta Tesis Doctoral es definir y validar soluciones para evaluar y mejorar la motivación de los estudiantes y profesionales en Ingeniería del Software. Para ello, se han creado instrumentos, metodologías y tecnologías que se han aplicado con un total de 152 estudiantes y 166 profesionales. Esta experiencia empírica ha servido para mejorar de manera continua dichas aportaciones, así como para comprobar en un entorno real su validez y utilidad. Los datos recogidos revelan que las soluciones provistas han resultado eficaces para comprender y estimular la motivación tanto en el ámbito académico como en el profesional. Además, a raíz de los datos recogidos se han podido explorar aspectos de interés sobre las características y particularidades motivacionales asociadas a la Ingeniería del Software. Por tanto, esta Tesis Doctoral resulta de interés para las universidades y empresas de este sector sensibilizadas con el desarrollo motivacional de sus estudiantes y trabajadores. Abstract It is crucial to understand and encourage the motivation of students and professionals in order to enhance their performance. This applies to students and professionals from diverse fields such as Software Engineering. Currently this sector is demanding scientific–technological solutions to work on motivational elements in a pragmatic and systematic way. Such elements are among others study and work satisfaction, active learning or interpersonal relationships. This Doctoral Thesis objective is to establish and validate solutions to evaluate and improve the motivation in the Software Engineering field. To achieve this goal, resources, methods and technologies have been created. They have been applied to 152 students and 166 professionals. This empirical experience served to, on one hand, enhance in a continuous way the provided contributions, and on the other hand, to test in a real environment their validity and utility. The collected data reveal that the provided solutions were effective to understand and encourage motivation both in the academic and in the professional area. In addition, the collected data enable to examine interesting aspects and motivational special features associated with Software Engineering. Therefore this Doctoral Thesis is relevant to universities and firms from this field which are aware of the significance of the motivational development of their students and employees.

Estrategias de desarrollo sostenible de la arquitectura del oasis de M’hamid, desierto del Sahara

Esta investigación se plantea con la hipótesis radical de cómo habitar el desierto de forma sostenible, desde una actitud pragmática y experimental basada en el progreso. La justificación se basa en primer lugar en los 2.000 millones de personas en el mundo que viven en entornos desérticos, el 80% de ellas, en países en desarrollo, porque el 40% de la superficie terrestre está bajo amenaza de desertificación afectando al 37% de la población mundial, con 12 millones de hectáreas al año perdidas por esa causa, y por último, porque se considera el desierto como un entorno de gran atractivo y potencial. El contenido de la investigación se estructura en tres movimientos: posicionamiento, mirada y acción: Desde el posicionamiento se define en primer lugar la sostenibilidad, aportando un nuevo diagrama donde se incorpora el ámbito arquitectónico como uno de los pilares principales, y, posteriormente, se establecen los criterios de evaluación de la sostenibilidad, aportando un sistema de indicadores donde se incorporan parámetros adecuados a las circunstancias del oasis. Del mismo modo, se estudian y analizan metodologías de actuación y proyectos de desarrollo sostenible existentes que enmarcan el estado del arte, constatando la dificultad de adaptación de los mismos a las condiciones de los oasis, por lo que se elabora una metodología propia donde se modifica la dinámica estratégica, de forma que el impulso se plantea desde la acción social, a través de hipótesis de estrategias basadas en sistemas low-cost, autoconstruidas, asumibles económicamente y de implantación factible. El caso de estudio específico radica en la situación extrema de las condiciones en el oasis de M’hamid, donde se evidencia un proceso de desintegración y abandono. Esto es debido a una acumulación de circunstancias externas e internas, de múltiples factores: naturales y antrópicos que afectan al oasis, llevando al extremo las condiciones climáticas y la escasez de recursos, naturales y artificiales. Factores como el cambio climático, la sequía, los cambios en las políticas del agua, la amenaza de desertificación, los conflictos sociales, el desequilibrio ecológico, la escasez económica, la crisis energética, la obsolescencia arquitectónica, el patrimonio construido prácticamente destruido, y la malentendida nueva arquitectura. Es importante constatar la escasa documentación gráfica existente sobre la zona de actuación lo que ha conllevado un amplio trabajo de documentación, tanto cartográfica como de observación directa, aportada a la tesis como investigación de elaboración propia. La mirada analítica al caso de estudio permite conocer los recursos disponibles y las potencialidades latentes del oasis de M’hamid, que permitirán actuar para subvertir la dinámica involutiva imperante, de forma que los dibujos iniciales de apropiación contextual y análisis críticos derivan en mapas de acción diagramados conformados por un sistema de objetos y la definición de estrategias transversales, deconstruyendo el pasado y reconstruyendo el futuro, incorporando sistemas alternativos que se definen en 7 líneas estratégicas de acción formuladas desde los 3 ámbitos relacionados con el ecosistema: ecológico, socio- económico y arquitectónico. Así, la tesis defiende la acción arquitectónica como impulsora del desarrollo sostenible, apoyada en 3 elementos: - la creación de objetos “tecnoartesanos”, para el aprovechamiento de los recursos energéticos - las transformaciones arquitectónicas, para reformular el hábitat desde la eficiencia energética y el progreso - y el impulso de acciones cotidianas, que redefinan las relaciones sociales, creando entornos cooperativos y colaborativos. En el ámbito ecológico se proponen actuaciones anti desertificación mediante incubadoras de árboles; sistemas alternativos de gestión del agua, como la lluvia sólida; estrategias de potenciación de la producción agrícola; la construcción de mecanismos de obtención de energía a partir de residuos, como los paneles solares con botellas PET. En el ámbito socioeconómico se plantean nuevas formas de acción social y de reactivación económica. Por último, en el ámbito urbano-arquitectónico, se incorporan modificaciones morfológicas a la arquitectura existente y una relectura contemporánea de la tierra, como material que permite nuevas geometrías, obteniendo arena petrificada por procesos microbiológicos, y potenciando la tierra como recurso artístico. Esta tesis es un punto de partida, recoge sistemas, estrategias y experiencias, para funcionar como un estímulo o impulso dinamizador del futuro desarrollo sostenible del oasis, abriendo vías de investigación y experimentación. ABSTRACT This research puts forth the radical hypothesis of how to inhabit the desert in a sustainable way, using a pragmatic and experimental approach based on progress. The justification for this resides in the fact that there are 2,000 million people in the world living in desert environments, 80% of them in developing countries. Forty percent of the earth’s surface is under threat of desertification, affecting 37% of the world population and with 12 million hectares being lost each year. And finally, the desert is considered as an attractive environment and therefore, with great potential. The content of the research is structured in three main sections: positioning, observation and action: As a point of departure, sustainability is defined, proposing a new framework where architecture is incorporated as one of the main pillars. Then, the criteria for evaluating sustainability are established. These provide a system of indicators, which incorporate parameters based on the specific circumstances of the oasis. Methodologies and existing sustainable development projects that represent the state-of-the-art are analyzed, discussing the difficulty of adapting them to conditions of oases. A methodology that modifies strategic concepts is developed, whereby the catalyst is social action, and strategies are developed based on low-cost, self-built, and feasible implementation systems. The specific case study lies in the extreme conditions in the oasis of M'hamid, where a process of decay and neglect is evident. This deterioration is due to an accumulation of external and internal circumstances, and of natural and anthropogenic factors that affect the oasis, leading to extreme weather conditions and a shortage of both natural and artificial resources. Factors include; climate change, drought, changes in water policies, the threat of desertification, social conflicts, ecological imbalance, economic shortage, the energy crisis, architectural obsolescence, destruction of built heritage, and misunderstood new architecture. It is important to note the extremely limited graphic information about the area has led me to produce an extensive archive of maps and drawings, many developed by direct observation, that contribute to the research. The case study analysis of the oasis of M'hamid examines the resources available and the latent potential to slow the prevailing trend towards deterioration. The initial drawings of contextual appropriation and critical analysis result in maps and diagrams of action, which are formed by a system of objects and the definition of strategies. These can be thought of as understanding or “deconstructing” the past to reconstruct the future. Alternative approaches defined in seven strategies for action are based on three fields related to the ecosystem: ecological, socioeconomic and architectural. Thus, the thesis defends architectural action to promote sustainable development, based on three elements: - The creation of "techno-artisans", to make use of energy resources - Architectural changes, to reformulate habitat in terms of energy efficiency and progress - And the promotion of everyday actions, to redefine social relations, creating cooperative and collaborative environments. In the ecological field, I propose anti-desertification actions such as; tree incubators, alternative water management systems(such as solid rain),; strategies to empower the agricultural production, energy from low-cost systems made out from recycled materials(such as solar panels from PET bottles or wind turbine from bicycle wheels). In the socioeconomic sphere, I propose to implement new forms of social action and economic regeneration. Finally, within the urban and architectural field, I propose morphological changes to the existing architecture and a contemporary reinterpretation of the earth as a material that allows new geometries, creating petrified sand by microbiological processes or enhancing nature as an artistic and energy resource. This thesis is a starting point. It collects systems, strategies and experiences to serve as a stimulus or dynamic momentum for future sustainable development of the oasis, opening new avenues of research and experimentation. RÉSUMÉ Cette recherche part d'une hypothèse radicale : comment habiter le désert de façon durable, et ce à partir d'une approche pragmatique et expérimentale basée sur le progrès. Cette hypothèse se justifie en raison des 2 milliards de personnes qui dans le monde habitent des environnements désertiques, 80% d'entre eux dans des pays en voie de développement, mais aussi parce que 40% de la surface de la planète est sous menace de désertification, un phénomène affectant 37% de la population mondiale et qui cause la perte de 12 millions d'hectares par an; et enfin parce que le désert est considéré comme un environnement très attrayant et fort d’un grand potentiel. Le contenu de la recherche se divise en trois mouvements: le positionnement, le regard et l'action : Du point de vue du positionnement on définit tout d'abord la durabilité, présentant un nouveau schéma où le domaine de l'architecture devient un des principaux piliers, et, par la suite, des critères d'évaluation de la durabilité sont établis, en fournissant un système d’indicateurs qui intègre les paramètres appropriés aux circonstances de l'oasis. De même, des méthodologies et des projets de développement durable existants sont étudiés et analysés, ce qui encadre l'état de l'art, remarquant la difficulté de les adapter aux conditions des oasis. De cette difficulté découle l'élaboration d'une méthodologie qui modifie la dynamique stratégique, de sorte que l'impulsion provient de l'action sociale, à travers des hypothèses de stratégie basées sur des systèmes low-cost, auto-construits, et de mise en oeuvre économiquement viable. Le cas d'étude spécifique réside en la situation extrême des conditions de l'oasis de M’hamid, où un processus de décadence et de négligence est évident. Cela est dû à une accumulation de circonstances externes et internes, de multiples facteurs: les facteurs naturels et anthropiques qui affectent l'oasis, menant à l'extrême les conditions météorologiques et la pénurie de ressources, autant naturelles qu'artificielles. Des facteurs tels que le changement climatique, la sécheresse, les changements dans les politiques de l'eau, la menace de la désertification, les conflits sociaux, le déséquilibre écologique, la pénurie économique, la crise de l'énergie, l'obsolescence architecturale, le patrimoine bâti pratiquement détruit et une mauvais compréhensif de la nouvelle architecture. Il est important de de faire remarquer le peu d'informations graphiques du domaine d'action, ce qui a conduit à un vaste travail de documentation, autant cartographique que relative à l'observation directe. Cette documentation s'ajoute à la thèse en tant que recherche propre. Le regard analytique sur le cas d'étude permet de connaître les ressources disponibles et le potentiel latent de l'oasis de M’hamid, qui agiront pour renverser la dynamique d'involution en vigueur. Ainsi, les premiers dessins d'appropriation contextuelle et analyse critique deviennent des cartes d'action schématisées formées par un système d'objets et la définition de stratégies transversales, qui déconstruisent le passé et reconstruisent l'avenir, en incorporant des systèmes alternatifs qui se définissent sur 7 lignes stratégiques d'action formulées à partir des 3 domaines en relation avec l’écosystème: l’écologique, le socio-économique et l'architectural. Ainsi, la thèse défend l'action architecturale en tant que promotrice du développement durable, et ce basé sur 3 éléments: - la création d'objets "technoartisans" pour l'exploitation des ressources énergétiques - les modifications architecturales, pour reformuler l'habitat du point de vue de l'efficacité énergétique et le progrès - et la promotion des actions quotidiennes, pour redéfinir les relations sociales, et la création d'environnements de coopération et collaboration. Dans le domaine de l'écologie des actions de lutte contre la désertification sont proposées à travers des pépinières d'arbres, des systèmes alternatifs de gestion de l'eau comme par exemple la pluie solide, des stratégies de mise en valeur de la production agricole, la construction de mécanismes de production d'énergie à partir de résidus, tels que les panneaux solaires ou les bouteilles en PET. Dans le domaine socio-économique, l'on propose de nouvelles formes d'action sociale et de reprise économique. Enfin, dans le domaine de l'urbain et de l'architectural, on incorpore des changements morphologiques à l'architecture existante et une relecture contemporaine de la terre, comme matériau qui permet de nouvelles géométries, en obtenant du sable pétrifié par des procédés microbiologiques et en mettant en valeur la terre comme une ressource artistique. Cette thèse n'est qu'un point de départ. Elle recueille des systèmes, des stratégies et des expériences pour servir de stimulus ou d'impulsion dynamisatrice du futur développement durable de l'oasis, en ouvrant des voies de recherche et d'expérimentation.

Arquitecturas en árboles: atenciones contemporáneas, 1990-2010

La tesis abre su mirada hacia uno de los discursos más interesantes, a mi juicio, de la cultura arquitectónica contemporánea: el de la relación establecida entre el ser humano y la naturaleza. Algunos autores creen que esta relación se establece como simbiosis, como un organismo arquitectónico en correlación y analogía con su entorno y emplazamiento. Otros ven una correspodencia en la que la arquitectura se ubica como un artefacto que ”dialoga” y que no imita a la naturaleza. Las arquitecturas en árboles se desarrollan en estos dos sentidos. El panorama de estas arquitecturas está abierto, es incipiente, laberíntico, poliédrico y caleidoscópico. Metodológicamente ha sido necesario acotarlo y el período de estudio elegido ha sido el más fructífero de la historia y cultura de las estructuras en los árboles. En los últimos veinticinco años, éstas han vuelto a generar atracción por el auge de la sensibilización medioambiental. También se ha producido un incremento de las culturas del ocio (con acento en el deseo por encima de la utilidad o la necesidad) y de la introspección (en busca de un retiro espiritual alejado de la cultura de la globalización). Hacia 1990 se producen acontecimientos relevantes que son los precursores de este desarrollo: la aparición en 1988 del libro “Treehouses” de Aikman abre de manera desenfadada esta cultura arquitectónica. Para acotar el final del período de investigación se ha dejado un margen desde 2010 a 2015 por prudencia investigadora. Los objetivos de la tesis se han centrado: Primero, en encuadrar el concepto de “arquitecturas en árboles”; Segundo, en descubrir los motivos, ideas que inspiraron las arquitecturas en árboles anteriores al período de estudio y su posible repercusión en sus descendientes contemporáneas. Principalmente son atenciones ideológicas, culturales, sociales, filosóficas, simbólicas, míticos y funcionales. Tercero, en confeccionar una taxonomía de las intenciones, consideraciones y desencadenantes básicos que pudieran establecerse como claves del proceso imaginario, conceptivo y constructivo de la actuales arquitecturas en árboles (1990-2010). Para ello nos hemos puesto bajo el paraguas metodológico del concepto de atención, defendido por Quaroni, Ferrater, Broadbent y Seguí. Hemos planteado una reflexión sobre el tipo de atenciones y su idoneaidad llegando a distinguir las siguientes atenciones básicas: 1) Las atenciones históricas (del pasado): englobando bajo esta denominación el entramado rizomático de atenciones sociales, culturales, antropológicas, filosóficas, míticas y simbólicas. Estas atenciones permiten al lector posicionarse de manera efectiva en este amplio campo, para entrar con posterioridad en el cuerpo de la investigación. Posteriormente descubriremos que éstas se convierten en atenciones crítico-modales para las arquitecturas contemporáneas. 2) Las atenciones funcionales contemporáneas: en las que estableceremos una conexión multiple con otras atenciones ergonómicas, organizativas, tipológicas y medioambientales básicas que están claramente influenciadas por aquellas. Quedan establecidas en una taxonomía inédita de treinta ocho subcategorías que nos alejan del estereotipo de la casa en el árbol como lugar de defensa y protección, o como espacio lúdico-infantil 3) Las atenciones constructivas contemporáneas: que las relacionaremos con las biológicas, estructurales-portantes, tipológico-constructivas, medioambientales básicas (de los materiales), y que son tenidas en cuenta por los contructores. Asimismo, se revelan los sistemas de construcción de arquitecturas portantes y autoportantes (artificiales-naturales) y las 100% naturales. Además, se decubren los seis mecanismos estructurales de sujeción de habitáculos en árboles más utilizados, así como cuáles son los árboles idóneos para soportar estas estructuras. 4) Las atenciones formales contemporáneas: con sus conexiones hacia las atenciones presenciales, espaciales organizativas y medioambientales básicas. Se establecen taxonomías sistemáticas formales simples y complejas (pragmática, icónica, analógica y canónica). Se estudian con profundidad la analogía con otras realidades y la estructuración geométrica formal (canónica) por considerarlas las más relevantes. Se culmina la investigación con una reflexión sobre el conjunto rizomático de atenciones, disciplinas, nociones y conceptos inherentes al campo de las arquitecturas en árboles, ejemplificándolo con un ideograma. La última vista se fija sobre el arco temporal de estas arquitecturas reflejando las cincuenta más significativas por su mayor coherencia de competencia atencional, total o parcial. ABSTRACT This dissertation looks into one the most interesting discourses in contemporary architectural culture: the relationship between human beings and nature. Some scholars think of this relationship as a symbiosis, as an architectural organism armonically correlated with its environment and location. Others believe that a correspondence exists where architecture stands as an artifact ‘in dialogue’ with, and not as an imitation of, nature. Treehouses develop in both senses. The realm of these architectures is open, embryonic, labyrinthine, polyhedral and kaleidoscopic. It was necessary to methodologically delimit it. We chose for the study the most fruitful period in the history and culture of treehouses. During the last twenty-five years, the latter have exerted great appeal once more due to the rise in environmental awareness. Likewise, leisure cultures (highlighting desire over utility or necessity) and introspection (seeking spiritual retreat far from the culture of globalization) have significantly increased. Around 1990, some relevant events announce this development: the publication of the book Treehouses by Aikman in 1988 inaugurates in an informal fashion such architectural culture. As for the final limit of the period addressed, an open margin between 2010 and 2015 has been established, out of scholarly prudence. The dissertation objectives have focused on: First, framing the concept of “treehouses”. Second, discovering the motifs and ideas that inspired treehouses in previous periods, and their possible influence on their contemporary successors. These consist basically of idelogical, cultural, social, philosophical, symbolic, mythical and functional attentions. Third, elaborate a taxonomy of the different basic intentions, considerations and triggers that might appear as crucial for the imaginary, conceptual and constructive process of current treehouses (1990-2010). To this end, we stood under the methodological umbrella of the notion of attention as defined by Quaroni, Ferrater, Broadbent and Seguí. We have proposed a reflection on the different kind of attentions and their suitability, distinguishing the following basic attentions: 1) Historical attentions (from the past): this denomination comprises the rhizomatic fabric of social, cultural, anthropological, philosophical, mythical and symbolic attentions. These attentions allow the reader to get a foothold on this broad field before being able to go into the main body of research. We will later discover that these become critical modal attentions for contemporary architectures. 2) Contemporary functional attentions. A multiple connection will be established with other basic ergonomic, organisational, typological and environmental attentions clearly influenced by them. They are classified in an unprecedented taxonomy of thirty-eight subcategories that move us away from the stereotype of the tree house as a site of defense and protection, or as a children’s playground. 3) Contemporary constructive attentions. They will be linked with basic biological, structural-carrying, typological-constructive, environmental attentions (of materials) taken into account by constructors. Likewise, the construction systems for carrying and self-carrying (artificial-natural) architectures, as well as for 100% natural ones, are revealed. Besides, we disclose the six structural mechanisms employed to fasten cabins to trees, and which the most suitable trees to support such structures are. 4) Contemporary formal attentions, including their connections with spatial, organizational and basic environmental attentions. Simple and complex formal systematic taxonomies (pragmatic, iconic, analogical and canonical) have been established. Their analogy to other realities and to formal geometrical (canonical) structuring is studied in depth as utterly significant. The research concludes by reflecting on the rhizomatic set of attentions, disciplines, notions and concepts inherent in the field of treehouses through an ideogram. The final view engages with the time span of these architectures by highlighting the fifty most noteworthy on account of the higher consistency of their attentional competence, either total or partial.

California pragmatista 1900-1960: proyecto doméstico como expresión y laboratorio del modo de vida

Esta tesis doctoral pretende desgranar una técnica de proyecto que la experiencia californiana ejemplifica y que puede ser descrita en términos pragmatistas. La arquitectura doméstica californiana fue la expresión tangible de una forma de ser y estar californiana pero también universal. El destinatario de esta arquitectura experimental y pragmática fue el individuo, tanto el gran mecenas como el liberal individualista de recursos moderados y aspiraciones infinitas; la gente corriente y, más tarde, la típica familia de clase media, fueron sin embargo el destinatario soñado en muchos ensayos de casa particular, frecuentemente en la casa del propio arquitecto. Arquitectos y clientes compartían el deseo común de un espacio doméstico involucrado en propiciar una vida sana, informal y hedonista, y en comunión con el aire, la naturaleza y el territorio, que satisficiera el espíritu independiente y emprendedor propio de una identidad libre y progresista. Participaron en ese sentido de la esperanza pragmatista de un futuro mejor, mediante la formulación de un modo de vida propio, moldeado por las distintas fuerzas motoras que definían el contexto. La principal de ellas fue la sensación de oportunidad: California se ofrecía como una tabula rasa con un clima paradisíaco; el paraíso soñado para generaciones sucesivas de recién llegados, que en la distancia con tradiciones preestablecidas en sus lugares de origen, encontraron el mayor estímulo para una actitud experimental que tomó el modo de vida como un material de proyecto para la formulación del espacio doméstico. Así, el proyecto doméstico californiano, fue un laboratorio cuyo trabajo mezclaba casos específicos con mitos e ilusiones, muchas veces cuestionadas; pero su interés reside en que puede ser, además de un referente estético y un icono visual, un ejemplo de una forma de proyectar que aborda el proyecto doméstico con talante indagador desde la receptividad al contexto físico, social y cultural; con capacidad para soñar y experimentar llevando los ideales a la práctica de los casos concretos; desde la atención al usuario, aunque sea anónimo; y usando un léxico llano, que devuelve toda la eficacia al vocabulario cotidiano. La experiencia californiana es por tanto, en este trabajo, sólo un ejemplo; un ejemplo paradigmático de una técnica de proyecto que puede ser de interés en otras circunstancias y contextos, y que concibe el espacio doméstico como la expresión, y también el laboratorio, del modo de vida. ABSTRACT This doctoral thesis aims to display a design’s technic that is exemplified by the Californian experience and can be described in pragmatic terms. The Californian domestic architecture was the tangible expression of a life style and way of being that was Californian but also universal. Home’s designed for the everyday experience attended the individual, both the rich sponsors of their own domestic design and the low income liberal individualists in search of an affordable but optimum home. But the dreamed target was ordinary people and the typical middle class family, as they represented the dream of a truly democratic society. Many domestic experiments for them took the form of particular cases, often in the house of the architect, which acted as a laboratory in search of general solutions. Architects and clients shared the common desire of a new domestic space, involved in promoting a healthy, casual and hedonistic lifestyle and in communion with the air, nature and territory, which satisfied the own independent and entrepreneurial spirit of a free and progressive identity. The way of life was therefore a design material, sensitive to the forces that shaped the region and its society through its domestic space. The main one was the feeling of opportunity: California offered itself as a tabula rasa with an exotic climate; the dreamed paradise for successive generations of newcomers who, in the distance with the pre-established traditions of their homelands, found the greatest incentive for an experimental attitude in which lifestyle was seen as project material to formulate the domestic space. Thus, the Californian domestic project can be more than an aesthetic reference and a visual icon; it is also an example of a design’s technic that approaches the domestic project with an inquisitive spirit sustained by these abilities: receptivity to the physical, social and cultural context; capacity to dream and to experiment, carrying ideals into practice; attention to the user, even when it’s anonymous; and use of a common lexicon that returns all the power to the everyday vocabulary. The Californian experience is therefore, in this dissertation, just an example; a paradigmatic example of a project technique that conceives domestic space as an expression, and also as a laboratory, of the way of life.