The Spreading of Christianity and the introduction of Modern Architecture in Shannxi, China (1840-1949): Christian churches and traditional Chinese architecture

La arquitectura china ha experimentado grandes cambios a lo largo de un extenso proceso hist��rico. El hito de mayor importancia es el que da paso al denominado Tiempo Moderno, periodo en el cual irrumpe por vez primera en China la arquitectura occidental, que comienza a tener una influencia muy activa y significativa sobre los rasgos y la identidad de la arquitectura tradicional china, hasta ese momento el ��nico estilo o forma de hacer ���muy diferente, en cuanto a su concepci��n y fisonom��a, de los planteamientos occidentales- que hab��a sobrevivido sin desv��os significativos, configurando un panorama milenario bastante homog��neo en los aspectos t��cnicos y art��sticos en el desarrollo de esa arquitectura. Por un c��mulo de complejas razones, la mayor parte de la arquitectura china del periodo feudal -es decir el que forman todos los a��os anteriores a 1849- ha desaparecido. Sin embargo, desde la fecha indicada hasta la Revoluci��n de 1949 (el denominado periodo semicolonial o semifeudal), s�� se conservan muchas edificaciones, que fueron mejor construidas y mantenidas luego, destacando por su importancia en ese sentido las iglesias cristianas. Dichos templos representan cronol��gicamente, no s��lo la primera irrupci��n de la arquitectura cl��sica occidental en China, sino el inicio de un proceso de modernizaci��n de la profundamente enraizada y, en buena medida, estancada arquitectura vern��cula, combinando t��cnicas y estilos de ambos planteamientos, para dar como resultado originales edificaciones de un singular eclecticismo que caracterizar��an buena parte de la arquitectura de dicha etapa semicolonial. En t��rminos generales, ��ltimamente se ha ido prestando cada vez m��s atenci��n a esta arquitectura de los tiempos modernos, aunque las iglesias cristianas de la provincia de Shaanxi no han sido objeto de estudio espec��fico, a pesar de que su tipolog��a es muy representativa de las construcciones de esta clase en otras regiones del interior de China. La investigaci��n que desarrolla la presente tesis doctoral sale al paso de esa deficiencia, abriendo puertas a la continuaci��n del trabajo referido, extendido a otras zonas o arquitecturas, y, por extensi��n, a la profundizaci��n anal��tica de la hibridaci��n arquitect��nica y cultural entre China y Occidente. Sobre las bases de investigaci��n documental, estudios de campo y dibujo, la tesis plantea un estudio aclaratorio de los rasgos y ra��ces de la arquitectura tradicional china, al que sigue otro hist��rico y tipol��gico de los templos cristianos en la provincia de Shaanxi, deteni��ndose en sus caracter��sticas fundamentales, situaci��n (uso) actual y estado de conservaci��n. Se ha considerado imprescindible a��adir al trabajo, como ap��ndice, un elaborado glosario conceptual ilustrado de t��rminos b��sicos arquitect��nicos y constructivos, en chino, ingl��s y espa��ol. ABSTRACT The Chinese architecture has gone through great changes during the long process of history. The tremendous changing period was the named Modern Times of China when, for the very first time, the western architecture was introduced into China and became to influence majorly on the traditional Chinese architecture. Before that, the traditional Chinese architecture which has its own, yet totally different system from the occidental architecture system was the only architectural style could be found in China. Although, due to many historical, conceptual and architectural characteristic reasons, large amount of the ancient Chinese architecture built in the feudal China was not preserved, there are a lot of buildings of semi-feudal China that was well constructed and conserved. The most important architectural type of the semi-feudal China is the Christian Churches. It was not only the first western architectural form that was brought into and well developed in China, but also was the beginner of the modernization process of Chinese architecture. Because of the deep root of the 2000-year traditional Chinese architecture, all the Christian Churches built in China during the semi-colonial society has a combined style of both the traditional Chinese architecture and the classic western churches. They are a priceless asset of the Chinese architectural history. Recently, more and more attention had been paid on the Chinese Modern Times architecture, however, the Christian Churches in Shaanxi Province, the province which has a unique history with the Christian, but less economically developed have never been researched yet. The Christian Churches of Shaanxi Province reflect the general feature of developing history of the Christian Churches of common inner-land regions in China. The research opens the door to further study on other Christian Churches and related buildings, and also for the further study on the Chinese-western architectural and culture communication. On the base of document research, field survey and mapping, in this thesis, an in-depth study had been done on the general history of the features and roots of the traditional Chinese architecture, the developing history of the Christian Churches of Shaanxi Province and the architectural types, examples, characteristics, present situation and conservation status. By comparing the Christian Churches of the cities in Shaanxi province to the Christian Churches in other more developed cities, and by comparing the Christian Churches in China to the classic western churches, the architectural combination feature of the Christian Churches in China are highlighted. The thesis is a fundamental research on which many further studies about the architectural developing history, characteristics and conservation of the Christian Churches in China could be done. It is considered essential to add to the work, as an appendix, an elaborate conceptual illustrated glossary of architectural and construction terms in Chinese, English and Spanish.

Pr��cticas de electrotecnia realizadas en el curso 1901-1902

Introducci��n.Medida de Intensidades.Medir la resistencia de un galvan��metro con el galvan��metro mismo.Proyecto de Dinamo Tetrapolar.Sociedad Electro-Madrile��a : Anteproyecto para el alumbrado el��ctrico de Los Barrios bajos de Madrid

Diario de viaje: Curso de 1901-1902: Pr��cticas de 6�� a��o

Diario de viaje: Curso de 1901-1902: Pr��cticas de 6�� a��o

Discurso del Excmo. Sr. D. Luis Moya Blanco [Acto acad��mico en memoria de Francisco ����iguez Almech (1901-1982)]

Discurso del Excmo. Sr. D. Luis Moya Blanco [Acto acad��mico en memoria de Francisco ����iguez Almech (1901-1982)]

El modelo constructivo: la influencia de la t��cnica en la teor��a de la arquitectura (1840-1899)

La hip��tesis de partida de esta tesis es que existe una influencia directa entre la t��cnica que se desarrolla durante el segundo per��odo del s. XIX y el cambio sustancial de los conceptos y de la teor��a arquitect��nica que se da en esos mismos a��os. Dicha influencia genera nuevos modelos constructivos que ser��n la base de la arquitectura moderna. Para llegar a la confirmaci��n de la hip��tesis, se han planteado tres objetivos principales que responden a los tres cap��tulos principales de la misma. En primera instancia, se establecen las condiciones te��ricas del debate arquitect��nico entre las fechas estudiadas. Se analiza el concepto de modelo y ��estilo�� para evaluar si, efectivamente, hubo cambio o no. Tambi��n se analizar�� si los arquitectos eran conscientes de la necesidad de una nueva arquitectura que respondiese a la funcionalidad que el progreso requer��a. Para comprobar que dicho cambio se ha producido a todos los niveles hasta el punto de redefinir el modelo constructivo se escoge un ejemplo pr��ctico que cumpla las condiciones necesarias para sustentar o no la tesis y se investiga sobre si sucede o no el cambio. A continuaci��n, se analizar�� la situaci��n de la t��cnica y de los avances tecnol��gicos en el per��odo estudiado. Es importante contrastar que realmente hay un conocimiento y una conciencia verdadera de cambio entre los te��ricos y los arquitectos que est��n construyendo en ese momento. Confirmar que dicha conexi��n existe es vital para la investigaci��n; para eso, se analizar�� y se profundizar�� en las conexiones entre la arquitectura y la ingenier��a (o los avances tecnol��gicos) para entender la implicaci��n de uno con el otro. Con este fin, se han estudiado las distintas publicaciones peri��dicas de la ��poca; sobre todo la m��s relevante y la que primero se edit��, que fue La revue g��n��rale de l���architecture; me he apoyado en ella. Es un documento que mensualmente recoge cambios, avances y debates. Tuvo una grand��sima divulgaci��n; todo docente, arquitecto e ingeniero de la ��poca ten��a un acceso f��cil y directo a dicha publicaci��n. Por ��ltimo, a ra��z de una construcci��n ideal proyectada por uno de los grandes arquitectos te��ricos de la ��poca, se reflexiona sobre si esa arquitectura supone realmente una comprensi��n y una conciencia de los nuevos modelos arquitect��nicos, definidos por una t��cnica en progreso, o si responde exclusivamente a una utop��a arquitect��nica como tantas otras se hab��an esbozado con anterioridad por grandes te��ricos. Para poder definir la geometr��a de este elemento estructural, se ha realizado un modelado tridimensional que permite calcular la estructura a trav��s de un proceso de elementos finitos. El prop��sito de este c��lculo no es exclusivamente saber si la estructura era viable o no en aquella ��poca, sino tambi��n comprender si la definici��n de estos originales elementos estructurales implicaba una concepci��n nueva de las estructuras tridimensionales y eso significa que empezaba a germinar un cambio sustancial en la teor��a de la arquitectura, con la b��squeda de un nuevo modelo constructivo derivado de los avances t��cnicos. De este modo queda demostrado que el modelo constructivo ha cambiado definitivamente por un modelo mucho m��s vers��til y sobre todo con una gran capacidad de adaptaci��n, esto combinado a su vez con una proliferaci��n de patentes que intentan y buscan una estandarizaci��n del modelo constructivo y que no son, en ning��n caso, un modelo en s��. Como ��ltima conclusi��n, queda argumentado que en aquella ��poca ya se ten��a una gran intuici��n estructural; a pesar de que el c��lculo matem��tico era todav��a algo relativamente nuevo, se manejaban de forma instintiva l��neas de cargas, combinaci��n de materiales y nuevas formas, que ayudar��n a crear los modelos de los pr��ximos a��os y que ser��n la base del c��lculo num��rico posterior. ABSTRACT The hypothesis of this thesis is that there is a direct influence between the technique developed during the second period of the XIX century and the substantial change in the concepts and in the architectural theory that occurs in those years. This influence develops new building models that will be the basis of modern architecture. To confirm this hypothesis, we present three principal objectives that corresponds to the three principals chapsters of the text. First, we establish the theoretical conditions of the architectural debate between the dates studied. We analyze the concepts of model and ���style��� to assess whether there was a change or not. We consider as well if architects were aware of the need for a new architecture to respond to the functionality needs that progress demanded. To verify that the change occurred at all levels to the extent of redefining the building model we choose a practical example that fulfills the necessary conditions to support or not the thesis and we investigate whether or not the change happens. Next, we analyze the status of technical and technological advances in the study period of study. It is important to contrast that there is a real knowledge and awareness of change between the theorists and architects who are building at the time. Confirming that that connection exists is vital for the research; for that, we will analyze and deepen into the connections between architecture and engineering (or technological progress) to understand the implication of one into the other. To this end, we have studied various publications of the time; especially the most relevant and the first published, La Revue g��n��rale de l���architecture; I have relied on it. This is a monthly document that includes changes, developments and debates. It had a very great disclosure; every teacher, architect and engineer of the time had a direct and easy access to this publication. Finally, following theoretical ideal construction projected by one of the great architects of the time, we reflect on whether that architecture really represents an understanding and awareness of the new architectural models defined by a technique in progress, or if it only responds to an architectural utopia as the ones outlined earlier by the great theorists. To be able to define the geometry of this structural item, we have carried out a three-dimensional modeling that enables us to calculate the structure through a process of finite elements. The purpose of this calculation is not exclusively understanding whether the structure was viable or not at the time, but also understanding if the definition of these original structural elements involved a new concept of three-dimensional structures and if that involved the beginning of a substantial change in theory of architecture, with the search for a new construction model derived from technical advances. In this way it is demonstrated that the building model has definitely changed for a much more versatile one and above all with a high adaptation capacity, this combined in turn with a proliferation of patents that try and seek a standardization of the building model and are not, in any case, a model in itself. As a final conclusion, it is argued that at the time a major structural intuition was present; even though the math calculation was still relatively new, in an instinctively way load lines, combination of materials and new forms were taken into account, that will help to create models in the coming years and which will form the basis of subsequent numerical calculation.