Reverse logistics systems for waste generated throughout vehicles life-cycle

Waste produced during the service life of automobiles has received much less attention than end-of-life vehicles themselves. In this paper, we deal with the set up of a reverse logistics system for the collection and treatment of use-phase residues. First, the type of waste arising during vehicles? service life is characterized. Data were collected in collaboration with SIGRAUTO, the product stewardship organization in charge of vehicles? recovery in Spain. Next, three organizational models are proposed. The three alternatives are benchmarked and assessed from a double organizational and operational perspective for the particular case of the Madrid region in Spain

Origin and patterns of distribution of trace elements in street dust. Unleaded petrol and urban lead

The elemental composition, patterns of distribution and possible sources of street dust are not common to all urban environments, but vary according to the peculiarities of each city. The common features and dissimilarities in the origin and nature of street dust were investigated through a series of studies in two widely different cities, Madrid (Spain) and Oslo (Norway), between 1990 and 1994. The most comprehensive sampling campaign was carried out in the Norwegian capital during the summer of 1994. An area of 14 km2, covering most of downtown Oslo and some residential districts to the north of the city, was divided into 1 km2 mapping units, and 16 sampling increments of approximately 150 g were collected from streets and roads in each of them. The fraction below 100 μm was acid-digested and analysed by ICP-MS. Statistical analyses of the results suggest that chemical elements in street dust can be classified into three groups: “urban” elements (Ba, Cd, Co, Cu, Mg, Pb, Sb, Ti, Zn), “natural” elements (Al, Ga, La, Mn, Na, Sr, Th, Y) and elements of a mixed origin or which have undergone geochemical changes from their original sources (Ca, Cs, Fe, Mo, Ni, Rb, Sr, U). Soil resuspension and/or mobilisation appears to be the most important source of “natural” elements, while “urban” elements originate primarily from traffic and from the weathering and corrosion of building materials. The data for Pb seem to prove that the gradual shift from leaded to unleaded petrol as fuel for automobiles has resulted in an almost proportional reduction in the concentration of Pb in dust particles under 100 μm. This fact and the spatial distribution of Pb in the city strongly suggest that lead sources other than traffic (i.e. lead accumulated in urban soil over the years) may contribute as much lead, if not more, to urban street dust.

Do charges to freight trucks and trains in the European Union reflect their social marginal costs? Application to the case of Spain

In the last few years, the European Union (EU) has become greatly concerned about the environmental costs of road transport in Europe as a result of the constant growth in the market share of trucks and the steady decline in the market share of railroads. In order to reverse this trend, the EU is promoting the implementation of additional charges for heavy goods vehicles (HGV) on the trunk roads of the EU countries. However, the EU policy is being criticised because it does not address the implementation of charges to internalise the external costs produced by automobiles and other transport modes such as railroad. In this paper, we first describe the evolution of the HGV charging policy in the EU, and then assess its practical implementation across different European countries. Second, and of greater significance, by using the case study of Spain, we evaluate to what extent the current fees on trucks and trains reflect their social marginal costs, and consequently lead to an allocative-efficient outcome. We found that for the average case in Spain the truck industry meets more of the marginal social cost produced by it than does the freight railroad industry. The reason for this lies in the large sums of money paid by truck companies in fuel taxes, and the subsidies that continue to be granted by the government to the railroads.

Resonancias de los paradigmas científicos en las arquitecturas de la Escuela de Madrid

Los años cincuenta y sesenta son los años de la incorporación definitiva de la arquitectura española al panorama internacional. Entre los arquitectos que protagonizan ese salto sin retorno, se encuentra el grupo de aquellos que unos años más tarde serán denominados por Juan Daniel Fullaondo como Escuela de Madrid. Carlos Flores, en su libro Arquitectura Española Contemporánea 1880-1950, se refiere a esos arquitectos como aquellos que se aplicaban a la difícil tarea de restablecer en España un tipo de arquitectura que conectaba con las teorías, soluciones y lenguajes establecidos por Europa durante las primeras décadas del siglo XX. Sigfried Giedion plantea en Espacio, Tiempo y Arquitectura el origen de una nueva tradición, surgida a partir de la revolución óptica de principios de siglo. Con tradición se refiere a una nueva cultura, que abarca la interrelación de las diferentes actividades del hombre: la similitud de los métodos que se usan en la arquitectura, la construcción, la pintura, el urbanismo o la ciencia. Esa novedad, fundamentada en su independencia y desvinculación con el periodo anterior, se inscribe dentro del esquema evolutivo que Thomas Kuhn plantea en su texto La Estructura de la Revoluciones Científicas, conforme a periodos no acumulativos. Kuhn habla del surgimiento de anomalías en cada periodo, origen de las crisis de pensamiento cuya explicación precisará un necesario cambio paradigmático. En la ciencia, en el campo de la óptica Thomas Young demuestra a principios del siglo XIX la naturaleza ondulatoria de la luz con su experimento de doble rendija; en el electromagnetismo se produce el salto conceptual que supone la postulación de la existencia del campo eléctrico por parte de Michael Faraday, y en termodinámica la consideración apuntada por Planck de que la radiación de la energía de produce de forma discreta, a través de cuantos. En las artes plásticas, paralelamente, Gleizes y Metzinger, en su recopilación de logros cubistas recogida en Sobre el Cubismo, hablan de la evolución sufrida durante el siglo XIX por la pintura: desde el idealismo de principios de siglo, para pasando por el realismo y la representación impresionista de la realidad, concluir prescindiendo de la perspectiva clásica. También la matemática, una vez desarrolladas por Gauss o Lobachevsky y Bolyai geometrías coherentes que incumplen el quinto postulado de Euclides, terminará dando validez a través de Riemann a los espacios ambiente en los que habitan dichas geometrías, desvinculando la relación directa entre espacio geométrico –el espacio ambiente al que da lugar un tipo de geometría- y el espacio físico. Capi Corrales refleja en su libro Contando el Espacio, cómo hasta la teoría de la relatividad y el cubismo, las geometrías no euclídeas no se hicieron notorias también fuera del campo de las matemáticas. El origen de la nueva tradición con la que Giedion se refiere a la nueva cultura de la modernidad coincide con los saltos paradigmáticos que suponen la teoría de la relatividad en las ciencias y el cubismo en las artes plásticas. Ambas se prolongan durante las primeras décadas hasta la teoría cuántica y la abstracción absoluta, barreras que los dos principales precursores de la relatividad y el cubismo, Einstein y Picasso, nunca llegan a franquear. En ese sentido Giedion habla también, además del origen, de su desarrollo, e incorpora las aportaciones periféricas en la arquitectura de Brasil, Japón o Finlandia, incluyendo por tanto la revisión orgánica propugnada por Zevi como parte de esa nueva tradición, quedando abierta a la incorporación tardía de nuevas aportaciones al desarrollo de esa cultura de la modernidad. Eliminado el concepto de la estética trascendental de Kant del tiempo como una referencia absoluta, y asumido el valor constante de la velocidad de la luz, para la teoría de la relatividad no existe una simultaneidad auténtica. Queda así fijada la velocidad de la luz como uno de los límites del universo, y la equivalencia entre masa y energía. En el cubismo la simultaneidad espacial viene motivada por la eliminación del punto de vista preferente, cuyo resultado es la multiplicidad descriptiva de la realidad, que se visualiza en la descomposición en planos, tanto del objeto como del espacio, y la consecuente continuidad entre fondo y figura que en arquitectura se refleja en la continuidad entre edificio y territorio. Sin la consideración de un punto de vista absoluto, no existe una forma auténtica. El cubismo, y su posterior desarrollo por las vanguardias plásticas, hacen uso de la geometría como mecanismo de recomposición de la figura y el espacio, adoptando mecanismos de penetración, superposición y transparencia. Gyorgy Kepes indica en El Lenguaje de la Visión que la descomposición cubista del objeto implica la sucesiva autonomía de los planos, hasta convertirse en elementos constituyentes. Algo que refleja las axonometrías arquitectónicas de Van Doesburg y que culmina con los espacios propuestos por Mies van der Rohe en sus primeros proyectos europeos. Estos mecanismos, encuentran eco en los primeros planteamientos de Javier Carvajal: en la ampliación del Panteón de españoles del cementerio de Campo Verano, un recinto virtual reconstruido mentalmente a partir del uso de tres únicos planos; o en el Pabellón de Nueva York, que organiza su planta baja desde el recorrido, introduciendo el parámetro temporal como una dimensión más. Al uso diferenciado del plano como elemento constituyente, Carvajal incorpora su plegado y su disposición conformando envolventes como mecanismo de cualificación espacial y formal, potenciando la prolongación entre arquitectura y territorio. Una continuidad que quedará culminada en las dos viviendas unifamiliares construidas en Somosaguas. La descomposición volumétrica conduce a unos niveles de abstracción que hace precisa la incorporación de elementos de la memoria -fuentes, patios, celosías…- a modo de red de señales, como las que Picasso y Braque introducen en sus cuadros para permitir su interpretación. Braque insiste en el interés por el espacio que rodea a los objetos. Una búsqueda de la tactilidad del espacio contraria a la perspectiva que aleja el objeto del observador, y que en los jardines de las viviendas de Somosaguas parece emanar de su propia materialidad. Un espacio táctil alejado del espacio geométrico y que Braque identifica con el espacio representativo en el que Poincaré, en La Ciencia y la Hipótesis, ubica nuestras sensaciones. Desdibujar los límites del objeto prolonga el espacio indefinidamente. Con el paso en el arte griego del mito al logos, se abre paso a la matemática como herramienta de comprensión de la naturaleza hasta el siglo XIX. Leon Lederman, en Simetría y la Belleza del Universo, apunta a que una de las mayores contribuciones de la teoría de Einstein es hacer cambiar el modo de pensar la naturaleza, orientándolo hacia la búsqueda de los principios de simetría que subyacen bajo las leyes físicas. Considerando que la simetría es la invariancia de un objeto o un sistema frente a una transformación y que las leyes físicas son las mismas en cualquier punto del espacio, el espacio de nuestro universo posee una simetría traslacional continua. En la ocupación del espacio de las primeras propuestas de Corrales y Molezún aparecen estructuras subyacentes que responden a enlosetados: paralelogramos sometidos a transformaciones continuas, que la naturaleza identifica tridimensionalmente con los grupos cristalográficos. Las plantas del museo de Arte Contemporáneo de la Castellana, la residencia de Miraflores, el pabellón de Bruselas o la torre Peugeot pertenecen a este grupo. La arquitectura como proceso de ocupación continua del territorio y de su trasposición al plano de cubierta, se materializa en líneas estructurales coincidentes con la estructura matemática de sus simetrías de traslación cuya posibilidad de prolongación infinita queda potenciada por el uso de la envolvente transparente. Junto a esta transparencia literal, inherente al material, Colin Rowe y Robert Slutzky nos alertan sobre otra transparencia inherente a la estructura: la transparencia fenomenal, ilustrada por los cuadros de Juan Gris, y cuya intuición aparece reflejada en la casa Huarte en Puerta de Hierro de Madrid. Corrales y Molezún insisten en una lectura de su volumetría alejada de la frontalidad, en la que los contornos de sus cubiertas inclinadas y las visuales tangenciales sugeridas por la organización de sus recorridos introducen una estructura diagonal que se superpone al entendimiento ortogonal de su planta, dibujando una intrincada red de líneas quebradas que permiten al espacio fluctuar entre las secuencia volumétrica propuesta. Los datos relativos al contenido energético de la luz y el concepto de átomo parten de la consideración de la emisión de energía en cuantos realizada por Planck, y concluyen con una circunstancia paradójica: la doble naturaleza de la luz -demostrada por la explicación de Einstein del efecto fotoeléctrico- y la doble naturaleza de la materia -asumida por Bohr y demostrada por el efecto Compton-. Schrödinger y Heisenberg formularán finalmente la ecuación universal del movimiento que rige en las ondas de materia, y cuya representación matemática es lo que se conoce como función de onda. El objeto es así identificado con su función de onda. Su ondulatoriedad expresará la probabilidad de encontrarse en un lugar determinado. Gyorgy Kepes subraya la necesidad de simplificar el lenguaje para pasar de la objetividad que aún permanece en la pintura cubista a la abstracción total del espacio. Y es así como los artistas plásticos reducen los objetos a simples formas geométricas, haciendo aflorar a la vez, las fuerzas plásticas que los tensionan o equilibran, en un proceso que acaba por eliminar cualquier atisbo de materia. Robert Rosenblum en La Pintura Moderna y la Tradición del Romanticismo Nórdico habla de cómo ese rechazo de la materia en favor de un vacío casi impalpable, campos luminosos de color denso que difunden un sereno resplandor y parecen engendrar las energías elementales de la luz natural, está directamente vinculado a la relación con la naturaleza que establece el romanticismo nórdico. La expresión de la energía de la naturaleza concentrada en un vacío que ya había sido motivo de reflexión para Michael Faraday en su postulación del concepto de campo eléctrico. Sáenz de Oíza incide en la expresión de la condición material de la energía en su propuesta junto a José Luis Romany para la capilla en el Camino de Santiago. La evocación de diferentes fuerzas electromagnéticas, las únicas junto a las gravitatorias susceptibles de ser experimentadas por el hombre, aparecerán visualizadas también en el carácter emergente de algunas de sus obras: el Santuario de Aránzazu o Torres Blancas; pero también en la naturaleza fluyente de sus contornos, la dispersión perimetral de los espacios -el umbral como centro del universoo la configuración del límite como respuesta a las tensiones germinales de la naturaleza. Miguel Fisac, a la vuelta de su viaje a los países nórdicos, aborda una simplificación lingüística orientada hacia la adecuación funcional de los espacios. En el Instituto de Daimiel, el Instituto de formación del profesorado o los complejos para los Padres Dominicos en Valladolid o Alcobendas, organiza progresivamente la arquitectura en diferentes volúmenes funcionales, incidiendo de un modo paralelo en la manifestación de los vínculos que se establecen entre dichos volúmenes como una visualización de las fuerzas que los tensionan y equilibran. En ellos la prolongación de la realidad física más allá de los límites de la envolvente ya es algo más que una simple intuición. Un proceso en el que el tratamiento de la luz como un material de construcción más, tendrá un especial protagonismo. En la iglesia de la Coronación, la iluminación del muro curvo escenifica la condición ondulatoria de la luz, manifestándose como si de un patrón de interferencia se tratara. Frente a la disolución de lo material, el espacio se manifiesta aquí como un medio denso, alejado de la tradicional noción de vacío. Una doble naturaleza, onda y partícula, que será intuido también por Fisac en la materia a través de su uso comprometido del hormigón como único material de construcción. Richard Feynmann nos alerta de la ocupación del espacio por multitud de fuerzas electromagnéticas que, al igual que la luz, precisan de receptores específicos para captar su presencia. Sus célebres diagramas suponen además la visualización definitiva de los procesos subatómicos. Al igual que la abstracción absoluta en las artes plásticas, esas representaciones diagramáticas no son asimilables a imágenes obtenidas de nuestra experiencia. Una intuición plasmada en el uso del diagrama, que irán adquiriendo progresivamente los dibujos de Alejandro de la Sota. La sección del gimnasio Maravillas recoge los trazos de sus principales elementos constructivos: estructura, cerramientos, compartimentaciones…, pero también, y con la misma intensidad, los de las fuerzas que generan su espacio, considerando así su condición de elementos constituyentes. El vacío, nos deja claro Sota, es el lugar donde habitan dichas tensiones. La posterior simplificación de las formas acompañadas de la obsesión por su aligeramiento, la casi desaparición de la envolvente, incide en aquella idea con la que Paul Klee define la actividad del artista en su Teoría del Arte Moderno, y en la que se transmite el distanciamiento hacia lo aparente: No se trata de reproducir lo visible, se trata de volver visible. Así, en Bankunión y Aviaco, como en tantos otros proyectos, frente al objetivo de la forma, Sota plantea el límite como la acotación de un ámbito de actuación. Su propia representación aséptica y diagramática transmite la renuncia a una especificidad espacial. Gilles Deleuze expresa ese posicionamiento en Pintura, el Concepto de Diagrama: el diagrama como la posibilidad de cuadros infinitos, o la posibilidad infinita de cuadros. Aparece así una concepción probabilística del espacio en la que frente a la renuncia por la forma, la tendencia al aligeramiento, y lo difuso de su definición – ideas claras, definición borrosa, en palabras de Llinás referidas al modo de operar de Sota-, la insistente atención a algunos elementos como escaleras, protecciones o miradores parece trasmitir la idea de que la arquitectura queda condensada en aquellos acontecimientos que delatan su condición dinámica, transitoria. Primando la relación frente al objeto, el vínculo frente a lo tangible. English summary. The fifties and sixties were the years of the final incorporation of Spanish architecture to the international scene. Among the architects who star that no return leap, is the group of those who a few years later will be named by Juan Daniel Fullaondo as Escuela de Madrid. Carlos Flores, in his book Arquitectura Española Contemporánea 1880-1950, refers to those architects as those that applied to the difficult task of restoring in Spain an architecture that connected with theories, solutions and established languages in Europe during the first decades of the twentieth century. Sigfried Giedion proposes in Space, Time and Architecture, the origin of a new tradition, arising from the optical revolution at the beginning of the century. With tradition he refers to a new culture, covering the interplay of different human activities: the similarity of the methods used in architecture, building, painting, urban planning or science. This new feature, based on its independence and detachment from the previous period, is part of the evolutionary scheme that Thomas Kuhn proposes in his text The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, according to non-accumulative periods. Kuhn talks about the emergence of anomalies in each period, origin of thought crisis whose explanation will require a paradigm shift needed. In science, in the field of optical Thomas Young demonstrates at the early nineteenth century the wave nature of light with its double-slit experiment , in electromagnetism the postulation of the existence of the electric field by Michael Faraday involves a conceptual leap, and in thermodynamic, the consideration pointed by Planck about quantum energy radiation. In the arts, in a parallel process, Gleizes and Metzinger , in his collection of cubism achievements on their book Du Cubisme, speak of evolution occurring during the nineteenth century by the painting: from the idealism of beginning of the century, going for realism and impressionist representation of reality, and finishing regardless of the classical perspective . Mathematics also, once developed by Gauss and Lobachevsky and Bolyai consistent geometries that violate Euclid's fifth postulate , will end validating Riemann’s ambient spaces in which these geometries inhabit, decoupling the direct relationship between geometric space -the space environment that results in a type of geometry- , and physical space. Capi Corrales reflectes in his book Contando el Espacio, that non-Euclidean geometries were not noticeable outside the field of mathematics until the theory of relativity and cubism. The origin of the new tradition that Giedion relates to the new culture of modernity coincides with paradigmatic leaps pointed by the theory of relativity in science and Cubism in the visual arts. Both are extended during the first decades until quantum theory and absolute abstraction, barriers that the two main precursors of relativity and cubism, Einstein and Picasso never overcome. In that sense Giedion speaks about the origin, but also the development, and incorporates peripheral inputs from Brazil, Japan and Finland architecture, thus including organic revision advocated by Zevi as part of this new tradition, being open to the late addition of new contributions to the development of that culture of modernity. Removed the concept of Kant's transcendental aesthetics, of time as an absolute reference, and assumed the constant value of the speed of light, theory of relativity says there is no authentic concurrency. It is thus fixed the speed of light as one of the limits of the universe, and the equivalence of mass and energy. In cubism, spatial simultaneity results from the elimination of preferential points of view, resulting in the multiplicity descriptive of reality, which is displayed in decomposition levels, both the object and the space, and the resulting continuity between figure and background that architecture is reflected in the continuity between building and land. Without the consideration of an absolute point of view, there isn’t an authentic shape. Cubism, and its subsequent development by the vanguard arts, make use of geometry as a means of rebuilding the figure and space, taking penetration mechanisms, overlapping and transparency. Gyorgy Kepes suggest in Languaje of Vision, that cubist decomposition of the object involves successive planes autonomy, to become constituent elements. Something that reflects the Van Doesburg’s architectural axonometrics and culminates with the spaces proposed by Mies van der Rohe in his first European projects. These mechanisms are reflected in the first approaches by Javier Carvajal: the extension of Spanish Pantheon in Campo Verano Cemetery, virtual enclosure mentally reconstructed from 24 the use of only three planes, or in the Spanish Pavilion of New York, which organizes its ground floor from the tour, introducing the time parameter as an additional dimension. Carvajal adds to the differential use of the plane as a constituent, Carvajal incorporates its folding and forming enclosures available as a mechanism for spatial and formal qualification, promoting the extension between architecture and territory. A continuity that will be completed in the two houses built in Somosaguas. Volumetric decomposition, as the fragmentation achieved in the last cubist experiences, needs the incorporation of elements of memory - fountains, patios, shutters...- as a network of signals, such as those introduced by Picasso and Braque in their paintings to allow their interpretation. Braque insists in his interest in the space surrounding the objects. A search of the tactility of space contrary to the perspective, which moves the observer away from the object, and that in the gardens of Somosaguas seems to emanate from its own materiality. A tactile space away from the geometric space and Braque identified with the representative space in which Poincaré in La Science et l´hypothèse, located our feelings. To blur those boundaries of the object extends the space indefinitely. With the passage in Greek art from myth to logos, it opens up to mathematics as a tool for understanding the nature until the nineteenth century. Leon Lederman, in Symmetry and beautiful Universe, suggests that one of the greatest contributions of Einstein's theory is to change the mindset of nature, namely the search for symmetry principles that underlie physical laws. Considering that symmetry is the invariance of an object or system from a transformation and that physical laws are the same at any point in space, the space of our universe has a continuous translational symmetry. In the space occupation of the first proposals by Corrales and Molezún underlying structures appear that match enlosetados: parallelograms under continuous transformations, which nature identifies tridimensionally with the crystallographic groups. Plants in the Contemporary Art Museum in La Castellana, the residence in Miraflores, the Brussels pavilion or the Peugeot tower belong to this group. The architecture as a process of continuous occupation of the territory and of its transposition to the deck, embodied in structural lines coincide with the mathematical structure of the translational symmetry and infinite extension whose possibility is enhanced by the use of the transparent cover. Alongside this literal transparency inherent to the material, Colin Rowe and Robert Slutzky alert us another transparency inherent in the structure: phenomenal transparency, illustrated by the Juan Gris’ works, and whose intuition is reflected in the Huarte’s house in Puerta de Hierro in Madrid. Corrales and Molezún insist on a reading of its volume away from the frontal, in which the outline of their inclined roofs and tangential visual suggested by the organization of his circulations introduce a diagonal structure which overlaps the orthogonal understanding of its plant, drawing an intricate web of broken lines that allow the space fluctuate between the volumetric sequence proposal. Information concerning to the energy mean of light and the concept of atom start from the consideration by Plank about the energy emission, and conclude with a paradoxical situation: the dual nature of light - demonstrated by the explanation of Einstein's photoelectric effect-, and the dual nature of matter -assumed by Bohr and demonstrated by the Compton effect-. Finally, Schrödinger and Heisenberg will formulate the universal movement equation governing in undulatory matter, whose mathematical representation is what is known as a wave function. The object is thus identified with its wave function. Its undulatory expression speaks about the probability of being found in a certain place. Gyorgy Kepes emphasizess the need to simplify the language to move from the objectivity that still remains in the cubist painting to the total abstraction of the space. And this is how artists reduced the objects to simple geometric shapes, making emerge at a time, the plastic forces that tense or balance them, in a process that eventually eliminate any trace of matter. Robert Rosenblum in Modern Painting and the Northern Romantic Tradition. Friedrich to Rothko talks about how this rejection of matter in an almost impalpable vacuum: dense color light fields that broadcast a serene glow and seem to generate the elemental energies of natural light is directly linked to the relationship with nature that sets the northern romanticism. An expression of the power of nature concentrated in a vacuum which had been reason for thought by Michael Faraday in his application of the concept of electric field. Saenz de Oíza touches upon the material expression of the energy in its proposal with Jose Luis Romany to the chapel on the Camino de Santiago. The presence of electromagnetic forces, the only ones with the gravitational one capable of being experienced by the man will also visualize in the emerging nature of some of his works: the sanctuary of Aránzazu or Torres Blancas, but also in the flowing nature of its contours, and the inclusion of interest in the realization of space fluctuating boundary: the threshold as the center of the universe. Miguel Fisac, back from his trip to the Northern Countries, starts on a linguistic simplification oriented to the functional adequacy of spaces. In the Daimiel Institute, in the Institute to Teacher Formation or in the complex to the Dominican Fathers in Valladolid or Alcobendas, progressively organized into different functional volumes architecture, focusing in a parallel way in the manifestation of the links established between these volumes as a visualization of the forces that tense and balance them. The prolongation of the physical reality beyond the limits of the envelope is already something more than a simple intuition. A process in which the treatment of light as a construction material, have a special role. In the Coronation church, curved wall lighting dramatizes the undulatory condition of the light, manifesting as if an interference pattern is involved. Versus the dissolution of the material, the space is expressed here as a dense atmosphere, away from the traditional notion of the vacuum. A dual nature, wave and particle, which is also sensed by Fisac in his committed use of concrete as a unique construction material. Richard Feynman alerts us to the occupation of space by many electromagnetic forces, which like the light, require specific receptors to capture their presence. His famous diagrams also involve the final visualization of atomic processes. As absolute abstraction in the visual arts, these representations are not assimilated to images obtained from our experience. A diagrammatic nature, abstracted from figuration, which will obtein the pictures of Alejandro de la Sota. The section of Maravillas gym collects traces of its main building blocks: structure, enclosures... but also, and with the same intensity, of the forces that generate their space as constituent elements. Sota makes it clear: the vacuum is where inhabit these tensions. The subsequent simplification of forms, accompanied by the obsession with his lightening, the near disappearance of the envelope, touches upon that idea which Paul Klee defines the activity of the artist in his Modern Art Theory, the spacing out to the apparent: it is not to reproduce the visible, it is to turn visible. Thus, in Bankunión and Aviaco, as in many other projects, against the shape, raises the limit as the dimension of a scope. His own aseptic and diagrammatic representation transmits waiver to a spatial specificity that Gilles Deleuze clearly expressed in Painting. The Concept Diagram: The diagram as the possibility of infinite pictures, or infinite possibility of the picture. Thus appears the probabilistic concept of space in which, opposite to the diffuse of its definition -clear ideas, diffuse definition, as Llinas said- the insistent attention to some elements like stairs, guards or lookouts seems to concentrate the architecture in its dynamic condition, transitional. The relationship opposite the object, the link opposite the tangible.

Papyrus, EATOP, and MetaEdit+: a comparison between the EAST-ADL modeling tools

Several Architecture Description Languages (ADLs) are emerging as models to describe and represent system architectures. Among others, EAST-ADL language is highlighted. It represents an abstraction of embedded software systems for automobiles. Given the need to implement the EAST-ADL language, there are many modeling tools to perform this task. The scope of this thesis is a detailed comparison of three EAST-ADL editors: Papyrus, EATOP and MetaEdit +, providing a conceptual framework, describing the comparison criteria, and finally exemplifying thanks to the Brake-By-Wire use case which has been provided, and whose development is not the subject of this project. The motivation for developing this project is to provide comparison guide between these three modeling tools to facilitate developers choice when deciding the tool in which develop their work. RESUMEN. Diversos Lenguajes de Descripción de Arquitecturas (ADLs) están surgiendo como modelos para describir y representar arquitecturas de sistemas. Entre ellos es destacado el lenguaje EAST-ADL, que representa una abstracción de los sistemas de software embebido para automóviles. Ante la necesidad de implementar el lenguaje EAST-ADL, han surgido diversas herramientas de modelado que llevan a cabo esta tarea. El alcance de este proyecto consiste en una comparación detallada de tres editores EAST-ADL: Papyrus, EATOP y MetaEdit+, proporcionando un marco conceptual, describiendo los criterios de comparación y finalmente ejemplificando con el caso de uso Brake-By-Wire que nos ha sido proporcionado, y cuyo desarrollo no es sujeto de este proyecto. La motivación para desarrollar este proyecto parte de proporcionar al usuario una guía comparativa de estas tres herramientas de modelado para facilitar su elección a la hora de desarrollar su trabajo.

Co-simulation Methodologies for Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Dynamics

In recent decades, full electric and hybrid electric vehicles have emerged as an alternative to conventional cars due to a range of factors, including environmental and economic aspects. These vehicles are the result of considerable efforts to seek ways of reducing the use of fossil fuel for vehicle propulsion. Sophisticated technologies such as hybrid and electric powertrains require careful study and optimization. Mathematical models play a key role at this point. Currently, many advanced mathematical analysis tools, as well as computer applications have been built for vehicle simulation purposes. Given the great interest of hybrid and electric powertrains, along with the increasing importance of reliable computer-based models, the author decided to integrate both aspects in the research purpose of this work. Furthermore, this is one of the first final degree projects held at the ETSII (Higher Technical School of Industrial Engineers) that covers the study of hybrid and electric propulsion systems. The present project is based on MBS3D 2.0, a specialized software for the dynamic simulation of multibody systems developed at the UPM Institute of Automobile Research (INSIA). Automobiles are a clear example of complex multibody systems, which are present in nearly every field of engineering. The work presented here benefits from the availability of MBS3D software. This program has proven to be a very efficient tool, with a highly developed underlying mathematical formulation. On this basis, the focus of this project is the extension of MBS3D features in order to be able to perform dynamic simulations of hybrid and electric vehicle models. This requires the joint simulation of the mechanical model of the vehicle, together with the model of the hybrid or electric powertrain. These sub-models belong to completely different physical domains. In fact the powertrain consists of energy storage systems, electrical machines and power electronics, connected to purely mechanical components (wheels, suspension, transmission, clutch…). The challenge today is to create a global vehicle model that is valid for computer simulation. Therefore, the main goal of this project is to apply co-simulation methodologies to a comprehensive model of an electric vehicle, where sub-models from different areas of engineering are coupled. The created electric vehicle (EV) model consists of a separately excited DC electric motor, a Li-ion battery pack, a DC/DC chopper converter and a multibody vehicle model. Co-simulation techniques allow car designers to simulate complex vehicle architectures and behaviors, which are usually difficult to implement in a real environment due to safety and/or economic reasons. In addition, multi-domain computational models help to detect the effects of different driving patterns and parameters and improve the models in a fast and effective way. Automotive designers can greatly benefit from a multidisciplinary approach of new hybrid and electric vehicles. In this case, the global electric vehicle model includes an electrical subsystem and a mechanical subsystem. The electrical subsystem consists of three basic components: electric motor, battery pack and power converter. A modular representation is used for building the dynamic model of the vehicle drivetrain. This means that every component of the drivetrain (submodule) is modeled separately and has its own general dynamic model, with clearly defined inputs and outputs. Then, all the particular submodules are assembled according to the drivetrain configuration and, in this way, the power flow across the components is completely determined. Dynamic models of electrical components are often based on equivalent circuits, where Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws are applied to draw the algebraic and differential equations. Here, Randles circuit is used for dynamic modeling of the battery and the electric motor is modeled through the analysis of the equivalent circuit of a separately excited DC motor, where the power converter is included. The mechanical subsystem is defined by MBS3D equations. These equations consider the position, velocity and acceleration of all the bodies comprising the vehicle multibody system. MBS3D 2.0 is entirely written in MATLAB and the structure of the program has been thoroughly studied and understood by the author. MBS3D software is adapted according to the requirements of the applied co-simulation method. Some of the core functions are modified, such as integrator and graphics, and several auxiliary functions are added in order to compute the mathematical model of the electrical components. By coupling and co-simulating both subsystems, it is possible to evaluate the dynamic interaction among all the components of the drivetrain. ‘Tight-coupling’ method is used to cosimulate the sub-models. This approach integrates all subsystems simultaneously and the results of the integration are exchanged by function-call. This means that the integration is done jointly for the mechanical and the electrical subsystem, under a single integrator and then, the speed of integration is determined by the slower subsystem. Simulations are then used to show the performance of the developed EV model. However, this project focuses more on the validation of the computational and mathematical tool for electric and hybrid vehicle simulation. For this purpose, a detailed study and comparison of different integrators within the MATLAB environment is done. Consequently, the main efforts are directed towards the implementation of co-simulation techniques in MBS3D software. In this regard, it is not intended to create an extremely precise EV model in terms of real vehicle performance, although an acceptable level of accuracy is achieved. The gap between the EV model and the real system is filled, in a way, by introducing the gas and brake pedals input, which reflects the actual driver behavior. This input is included directly in the differential equations of the model, and determines the amount of current provided to the electric motor. For a separately excited DC motor, the rotor current is proportional to the traction torque delivered to the car wheels. Therefore, as it occurs in the case of real vehicle models, the propulsion torque in the mathematical model is controlled through acceleration and brake pedal commands. The designed transmission system also includes a reduction gear that adapts the torque coming for the motor drive and transfers it. The main contribution of this project is, therefore, the implementation of a new calculation path for the wheel torques, based on performance characteristics and outputs of the electric powertrain model. Originally, the wheel traction and braking torques were input to MBS3D through a vector directly computed by the user in a MATLAB script. Now, they are calculated as a function of the motor current which, in turn, depends on the current provided by the battery pack across the DC/DC chopper converter. The motor and battery currents and voltages are the solutions of the electrical ODE (Ordinary Differential Equation) system coupled to the multibody system. Simultaneously, the outputs of MBS3D model are the position, velocity and acceleration of the vehicle at all times. The motor shaft speed is computed from the output vehicle speed considering the wheel radius, the gear reduction ratio and the transmission efficiency. This motor shaft speed, somehow available from MBS3D model, is then introduced in the differential equations corresponding to the electrical subsystem. In this way, MBS3D and the electrical powertrain model are interconnected and both subsystems exchange values resulting as expected with tight-coupling approach.When programming mathematical models of complex systems, code optimization is a key step in the process. A way to improve the overall performance of the integration, making use of C/C++ as an alternative programming language, is described and implemented. Although this entails a higher computational burden, it leads to important advantages regarding cosimulation speed and stability. In order to do this, it is necessary to integrate MATLAB with another integrated development environment (IDE), where C/C++ code can be generated and executed. In this project, C/C++ files are programmed in Microsoft Visual Studio and the interface between both IDEs is created by building C/C++ MEX file functions. These programs contain functions or subroutines that can be dynamically linked and executed from MATLAB. This process achieves reductions in simulation time up to two orders of magnitude. The tests performed with different integrators, also reveal the stiff character of the differential equations corresponding to the electrical subsystem, and allow the improvement of the cosimulation process. When varying the parameters of the integration and/or the initial conditions of the problem, the solutions of the system of equations show better dynamic response and stability, depending on the integrator used. Several integrators, with variable and non-variable step-size, and for stiff and non-stiff problems are applied to the coupled ODE system. Then, the results are analyzed, compared and discussed. From all the above, the project can be divided into four main parts: 1. Creation of the equation-based electric vehicle model; 2. Programming, simulation and adjustment of the electric vehicle model; 3. Application of co-simulation methodologies to MBS3D and the electric powertrain subsystem; and 4. Code optimization and study of different integrators. Additionally, in order to deeply understand the context of the project, the first chapters include an introduction to basic vehicle dynamics, current classification of hybrid and electric vehicles and an explanation of the involved technologies such as brake energy regeneration, electric and non-electric propulsion systems for EVs and HEVs (hybrid electric vehicles) and their control strategies. Later, the problem of dynamic modeling of hybrid and electric vehicles is discussed. The integrated development environment and the simulation tool are also briefly described. The core chapters include an explanation of the major co-simulation methodologies and how they have been programmed and applied to the electric powertrain model together with the multibody system dynamic model. Finally, the last chapters summarize the main results and conclusions of the project and propose further research topics. In conclusion, co-simulation methodologies are applicable within the integrated development environments MATLAB and Visual Studio, and the simulation tool MBS3D 2.0, where equation-based models of multidisciplinary subsystems, consisting of mechanical and electrical components, are coupled and integrated in a very efficient way.

Cancelación activa del ruido utilizando el KIT TMS320C5515 EZDSP

El control, o cancelación activa de ruido, consiste en la atenuación del ruido presente en un entorno acústico mediante la emisión de una señal igual y en oposición de fase al ruido que se desea atenuar. La suma de ambas señales en el medio acústico produce una cancelación mutua, de forma que el nivel de ruido resultante es mucho menor al inicial. El funcionamiento de estos sistemas se basa en los principios de comportamiento de los fenómenos ondulatorios descubiertos por Augustin-Jean Fresnel, Christiaan Huygens y Thomas Young entre otros. Desde la década de 1930, se han desarrollado prototipos de sistemas de control activo de ruido, aunque estas primeras ideas eran irrealizables en la práctica o requerían de ajustes manuales cada poco tiempo que hacían inviable su uso. En la década de 1970, el investigador estadounidense Bernard Widrow desarrolla la teoría de procesado adaptativo de señales y el algoritmo de mínimos cuadrados LMS. De este modo, es posible implementar filtros digitales cuya respuesta se adapte de forma dinámica a las condiciones variables del entorno. Con la aparición de los procesadores digitales de señal en la década de 1980 y su evolución posterior, se abre la puerta para el desarrollo de sistemas de cancelación activa de ruido basados en procesado de señal digital adaptativo. Hoy en día, existen sistemas de control activo de ruido implementados en automóviles, aviones, auriculares o racks de equipamiento profesional. El control activo de ruido se basa en el algoritmo fxlms, una versión modificada del algoritmo LMS de filtrado adaptativo que permite compensar la respuesta acústica del entorno. De este modo, se puede filtrar una señal de referencia de ruido de forma dinámica para emitir la señal adecuada que produzca la cancelación. Como el espacio de cancelación acústica está limitado a unas dimensiones de la décima parte de la longitud de onda, sólo es viable la reducción de ruido en baja frecuencia. Generalmente se acepta que el límite está en torno a 500 Hz. En frecuencias medias y altas deben emplearse métodos pasivos de acondicionamiento y aislamiento, que ofrecen muy buenos resultados. Este proyecto tiene como objetivo el desarrollo de un sistema de cancelación activa de ruidos de carácter periódico, empleando para ello electrónica de consumo y un kit de desarrollo DSP basado en un procesador de muy bajo coste. Se han desarrollado una serie de módulos de código para el DSP escritos en lenguaje C, que realizan el procesado de señal adecuado a la referencia de ruido. Esta señal procesada, una vez emitida, produce la cancelación acústica. Empleando el código implementado, se han realizado pruebas que generan la señal de ruido que se desea eliminar dentro del propio DSP. Esta señal se emite mediante un altavoz que simula la fuente de ruido a cancelar, y mediante otro altavoz se emite una versión filtrada de la misma empleando el algoritmo fxlms. Se han realizado pruebas con distintas versiones del algoritmo, y se han obtenido atenuaciones de entre 20 y 35 dB medidas en márgenes de frecuencia estrechos alrededor de la frecuencia del generador, y de entre 8 y 15 dB medidas en banda ancha. ABSTRACT. Active noise control consists on attenuating the noise in an acoustic environment by emitting a signal equal but phase opposed to the undesired noise. The sum of both signals results in mutual cancellation, so that the residual noise is much lower than the original. The operation of these systems is based on the behavior principles of wave phenomena discovered by Augustin-Jean Fresnel, Christiaan Huygens and Thomas Young. Since the 1930’s, active noise control system prototypes have been developed, though these first ideas were practically unrealizable or required manual adjustments very often, therefore they were unusable. In the 1970’s, American researcher Bernard Widrow develops the adaptive signal processing theory and the Least Mean Squares algorithm (LMS). Thereby, implementing digital filters whose response adapts dynamically to the variable environment conditions, becomes possible. With the emergence of digital signal processors in the 1980’s and their later evolution, active noise cancellation systems based on adaptive signal processing are attained. Nowadays active noise control systems have been successfully implemented on automobiles, planes, headphones or racks for professional equipment. Active noise control is based on the fxlms algorithm, which is actually a modified version of the LMS adaptive filtering algorithm that allows compensation for the acoustic response of the environment. Therefore it is possible to dynamically filter a noise reference signal to obtain the appropriate cancelling signal. As the noise cancellation space is limited to approximately one tenth of the wavelength, noise attenuation is only viable for low frequencies. It is commonly accepted the limit of 500 Hz. For mid and high frequencies, conditioning and isolating passive techniques must be used, as they produce very good results. The objective of this project is to develop a noise cancellation system for periodic noise, by using consumer electronics and a DSP development kit based on a very-low-cost processor. Several C coded modules have been developed for the DSP, implementing the appropriate signal processing to the noise reference. This processed signal, once emitted, results in noise cancellation. The developed code has been tested by generating the undesired noise signal in the DSP. This signal is emitted through a speaker simulating the noise source to be removed, and another speaker emits an fxlms filtered version of the same signal. Several versions of the algorithm have been tested, obtaining attenuation levels around 20 – 35 dB measured in a tight bandwidth around the generator frequency, or around 8 – 15 dB measured in broadband.