Implicaciones de la accesibilidad configuracional en la movilidad peatonal. El caso de Madrid = The implications of configurational accessibility in pedestrian mobility. The case of Madrid

- Resumen La hipótesis que anima esta tesis doctoral es que algunas de las características del entorno urbano, en particular las que describen la accesibilidad de su red de espacio público, podrían estar relacionadas con la proporción de viajes a pie o reparto modal, que tiene cada zona o barrio de Madrid. Uno de los puntos de partida de dicha hipótesis que el entorno urbano tiene una mayor influencia sobre los viaje a pie que en sobre otros modos de transporte, por ejemplo que en los viajes de bicicleta o en transporte público; y es que parece razonable suponer que estos últimos van a estar más condicionadas por ejemplo por la disponibilidad de vías ciclistas, en el primer caso, o por la existencia de un servicio fiable y de calidad, en el segundo. Otra de las motivaciones del trabajo es que la investigación en este campo de la accesibilidad del espacio público, en concreto la denominada “Space Syntax”, ha probado en repetidas ocasiones la influencia de la red de espacio público en cómo se distribuye la intensidad del tráfico peatonal por la trama urbana, pero no se han encontrado referencias de la influencia de dicho elemento sobre el reparto modal. De acuerdo con la hipótesis y con otros trabajos anteriores se propone una metodología basada en el análisis empírico y cuantitativo. Su objetivo es comprobar si la red de espacio público, independientemente de otras variables como los usos del suelo, incluso de las variables de ajenas entorno no construido, como las socioeconómicas, está o no relacionada estadísticamente con la proporción de peatones viajes en las zonas urbanas. Las técnicas estadísticas se utilizan para comprobar sistemáticamente la asociación de las variables del entorno urbano, denominadas variables independientes, con el porcentaje de viajes a pie, la variable dependiente. En términos generales, la metodología es similar a la usada en otros trabajos en este campo como los de CERVERÓ y KOCKLEMAN (1997), CERVERÓ y DUNCAN (2003), o para los que se utilizan principalmente en la revisión general de TRB (2005) o, más recientemente, en ZEGRAS (2006) o CHATMAN (2009). Otras opciones metodológicas, como los métodos de preferencias declaradas (ver LOUVIERE, HENSHER y SWAIT, 2000) o el análisis basado en agentes (PENN & TURNER, 2004) fueron descartados, debido a una serie de razones, demasiado extensas para ser descritas aquí. El caso de estudio utilizado es la zona metropolitana de Madrid, abarcándola hasta la M-50, es decir en su mayor parte, con un tamaño aproximado de 31x34 Km y una población de 4.132.820 habitantes (aproximadamente el 80% de la población de la región). Las principales fuentes de datos son la Encuesta Domiciliaria de Movilidad de 2004 (EDM04), del Consorcio Regional de Transportes de Madrid que es la última disponible (muestra: > 35.000 familias,> 95.000 personas), y un modelo espacial del área metropolitana, integrando el modelo para calcular los índices de Space Syntax y un Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG). La unidad de análisis, en este caso las unidades espaciales, son las zonas de transporte (con una población media de 7.063 personas) y los barrios (con una población media de 26.466 personas). Las variables del entorno urbano son claramente el centro del estudio. Un total de 20 índices (de 21) se seleccionan de entre los más relevantes encontrados en la revisión de la producción científica en este campo siendo que, al mismo tiempo, fueran accesibles. Nueve de ellos se utilizan para describir las características de los usos del suelo, mientras que otros once se usan para describir la red de espacios públicos. Estos últimos incluyen las variables de accesibilidad configuracional, que son, como se desprende de su título, el centro del estudio propuesto. La accesibilidad configuracional es un tipo especial de accesibilidad que se basa en la configuración de la trama urbana, según esta fue definida por HILLIER (1996), el autor de referencia dentro de esta línea de investigación de Space Syntax. Además se incluyen otras variables de la red de espacio público más habituales en los estudios de movilidad, y que aquí se denominan características geométricas de los elementos de la red, tales como su longitud, tipo de intersección, conectividad, etc. Por último se incluye además una variable socioeconómica, es decir ajena al entorno urbano, para evaluar la influencia de los factores externos, pues son varios los que pueden tener un impacto en la decisión de caminar (edad, género, nivel de estudios, ingresos, tasa de motorización, etc.). La asociación entre las variables se han establecido usando análisis de correlación (bivariante) y modelos de análisis multivariante. Las primeras se calculan entre por pares entre cada una de las 21 variables independientes y la dependiente, el porcentaje de viajes a pie. En cuanto a los segundos, se han realizado tres tipos de estudios: modelo multivariante general lineal, modelo multivariante general curvilíneo y análisis discriminante. Todos ellos son capaces de generar modelos de asociación entre diversas variables, pudiéndose de esta manera evaluar con bastante precisión en qué medida cada modelo reproduce el comportamiento de la variable dependiente, y además, el peso o influencia de cada variable en el modelo respecto a las otras. Los resultados fundamentales del estudio se expresan en dos modelos finales alternativos, que demuestran tener una significativa asociación con el porcentaje de viajes a pie (R2 = 0,6789, p <0,0001), al explicar las dos terceras partes de su variabilidad. En ellos, y en general en todo el estudio realizado, se da una influencia constante de tres índices en particular, que quedan como los principales. Dos de ellos, de acuerdo con muchos de los estudios previos, corresponden a la densidad y la mezcla de usos del suelo. Pero lo más novedoso de los resultados obtenidos es que el tercero es una medida de la accesibilidad de la red de espacio público, algo de lo que no había referencias hasta ahora. Pero, ¿cuál es la definición precisa y el peso relativo de cada uno en el modelo, es decir, en la variable independiente? El de mayor peso en la mayor parte de los análisis realizados es el índice de densidad total (n º residentes + n º puestos de trabajo + n º alumnos / Ha). Es decir, una densidad no sólo de población, sino que incluye algunas de las actividades más importantes que pueden darse una zona para generar movilidad a pie. El segundo que mayor peso adquiere, llegando a ser el primero en alguno de los análisis estadísticos efecturados, es el índice de accesibuilidad configuracional denominado integración de radio 5. Se trata de una medida de la accesibilidad de la zona, de su centralidad, a la escala de, más un menor, un distrito o comarca. En cuanto al tercero, obtiene una importancia bastante menor que los anteriores, y es que representa la mezcla de usos. En concreto es una medida del equilibrio entre los comercios especializados de venta al por menor y el número de residentes (n º de tiendas especializadas en alimentación, bebidas y tabaco / n º de habitantes). Por lo tanto, estos resultados confirman buena parte de los de estudios anteriores, especialmente los relativas a los usos del suelo, pero al mismo tiempo, apuntan a que la red de espacio público podría tener una influir mayor de la comprobada hasta ahora en la proporción de peatones sobre el resto de modos de transportes. Las razones de por qué esto puede ser así, se discuten ampliamente en las conclusiones. Finalmente se puede precisar que dicha conclusión principal se refiere a viajes de una sola etapa (no multimodales) que se dan en los barrios y zonas del área metropolitana de Madrid. Por supuesto, esta conclusión tiene en la actualidad, una validez limitada, ya que es el resultado de un solo caso — Abstract The research hypothesis for this Ph.D. Thesis is that some characteristics of the built environment, particularly those describing the accessibility of the public space network, could be associated with the proportion of pedestrians in all trips (modal split), found in the different parts of a city. The underlying idea is that walking trips are more sensitive to built environment than those by other transport modes, such as for example those by bicycle or by public transport, which could be more conditioned by, e.g. infrastructure availability or service frequency and quality. On the other hand, it has to be noted that the previously research on this field, in particular within Space Syntax’s where this study can be referred, have tested similar hypothesis using pedestrian volumes as the dependent variable, but never against modal split. According to such hypothesis, research methodology is based primarily on empirical quantitative analysis, and it is meant to be able to assess whether public space network, no matter other built environment and non-built environment variables, could have a relationship with the proportion of pedestrian trips in urban areas. Statistical techniques are used to check the association of independent variables with the percentage of walking in all trips, the dependent one. Broadly speaking this methodology is similar to that of previous studies in the field such as CERVERO&KOCKLEMAN (1997), CERVERO & DUNCAN (2003), or to those used mainly in the general review of T.R.B. (2005) or, more recently in ZEGRAS (2006) or CHATMAN (2009). Other methodological options such as stated choice methods (see LOUVIERE, HENSHER & SWAIT, 2000) or agent based analysis (PENN & TURNER, 2004), were discarded, due to a number of reasons, too long to be described here. The case study is not the entire Madrid’s metropolitan area, but almost (4.132.820 inhabitants, about 80% of region´s population). Main data sources are the Regional Mobility Home Based Survey 2004 (EDM04), which is the last available (sample: >35.000 families, > 95.000 individuals), and a spatial model of the metropolitan area, developed using Space Syntax and G.I.S. techniques. The analysis unit, in this case spatial units, are both transport zones (mean population = 7.063) and neighborhoods (mean population = 26.466). The variables of the built environment are clearly the core of the study. A total of 20 (out of 21) are selected from among those found in the literature while, at the same time, being accessible. Nine out of them are used to describe land use characteristics while another eleven describe the network of public spaces. Latter ones include configurational accessibility or Space Syntax variables. This is a particular sort of accessibility related with the concept of configuration, by HILLIER (1996), one of the main authors of Space Syntax, But it also include more customary variables used in mobility research to describe the urban design or spatial structure (here public space network), which here are called geometric characteristics of the such as its length, type of intersection, conectivity, density, etc. Finally a single socioeconomic variable was included in order to assess the influence non built environment factors that also may have an impact on walking (age, income, motorization rate, etc.). The association among variables is worked out using bi-variate correlation analysis and multivariate-analysis. Correlations are calculated among the 21 independent variables and the dependent one, the percentage of walking trips. Then, three types of multi-variate studies are run: general linear, curvilinear and discriminant multi-variate analysis. The latter are fully capable of generating complex association models among several variables, assessing quite precisely to what extent each model reproduces the behavior of the dependent variable, and also the weight or influence of each variable in the model. This study’s results show a consistent influence of three particular indexes in the two final alternative models of the multi-variate study (best, R2=0,6789, p<0,0000). Not surprisingly, two of them correspond to density and mix of land uses. But perhaps more interesting is that the third one is a measure of the accessibility of the public space network, a variable less important in the literature up to now. Additional precisions about them and their relative weight could also be of some interest. The density index is not only about population but includes most important activities in an area (nº residents + nº jobs+ nº students/Ha). The configurational index (radius 5 integration) is a measure of the accessibility of the area, i.e. centrality, at the scale of, more a less, a district. Regarding the mix of land uses index, this one is a measure of the balance between retail, in fact local basic retail, and the number of residents (nº of convenience shops / nº of residents). Referring to their weights, configurational index (radius 5 integration) gets the higher standardized coefficient of the final equation. However, in the final equations, there are a higher number of indexes coming from the density or land use mix categories than from public space network enter. Therefore, these findings seem to support part of the field’s knowledge, especially those concerning land uses, but at the same time they seem to bring in the idea that the configuration of the urban grid could have an influence in the proportion of walkers (as a part of total trips on any transport mode) that do single journey trips in the neighborhoods of Madrid, Spain. Of course this conclusion has, at present, a limited validity since it’s the result of a single case. The reasons of why this can be so, are discussed in the last part of the thesis.

Unimanual and Bimanual Weight Perception of Virtual Objects with a new Multi-finger Haptic Interface

Accurate weight perception is important particularly in tasks where the user has to apply vertical forces to ensure safe landing of a fragile object or precise penetration of a surface with a probe. Moreover, depending on physical properties of objects such as weight and size we may switch between unimanual and bimanual manipulation during a task. Research has shown that bimanual manipulation of real objects results in a misperception of their weight: they tend to feel lighter than similarly heavy objects which are handled with one hand only [8]. Effective simulation of bimanual manipulation with desktop haptic interfaces should be able to replicate this effect of bimanual manipulation on weight perception. Here, we present the MasterFinger-2, a new multi-finger haptic interface allowing bimanual manipulation of virtual objects with precision grip and we conduct weight discrimination experiments to evaluate its capacity to simulate unimanual and bimanual weight. We found that the bimanual ‘lighter’ bias is also observed with the MasterFinger-2 but the sensitivity to changes of virtual weights deteriorated.

Perception of employers and employees regarding the attitude of businesses toward the environment: a qualitative analysis

Commitment and involvement from the different members of an organization are two key elements for an organization to achieve its environmental excellence. Firstly, businesses are aware of the close relationship between their activities and the environment, for they are not only polluting agents but also agents with the capacity to reduce adverse environmental impacts. Secondly, the fact that employees can play a relevant role in terms of the socially responsible measures to be taken by organizations has started to become an irrefutably important issue. This piece of research is intended to help gain knowledge concerning the attitude of the two main actors in productive activity toward the environmental, that is, employers and employees; as well, this research intends to identify factors determining behaviour towards the environmental. For this, we have gathered the ideas and assessments contained in the discourse of a group of small and medium-sized businesses, large company owners and officers, employees, and work related risk prevention representatives. Qualitative work consisted of in-depth interviews and the creation of discussion groups.

A new method to analyse the perception of size

In living bodies, the correct perceptual representation of size constancy requires that an object's size appear the same when it changes its location with respect to the observer. At the same time, it is necessary that objects at different locations appear to be the same size if they are. In order to do that, the perceptual system must recover from the stimuli impinging on the individual, from the light falling on the retina, a representation of the relative sizes of objects in the environment. Moreover, at the same time, image perception is related to another type of phenomena. It corresponds to the well known perceptual illusions. To analyze this facts, we propose a system based on a particular arrays of receptive points composed by optical fibers and dummy fibers. The structure is based on the first layers of the mammalians primary visual cortex. At that part of the brain, the neurons located at certain columns, respond to particular directions. This orientation changes in a systematic way as one moves across the cortical surface. In our case, the signals from the above-mentioned array are analyzed and information concerning orientation and size of a particular line is obtained. With this system, the Muelle-Lyer illusion has been studied and some rules to interpret why equal length objects give rise to different interpretations are presented.

Measurements and Prediction of Pedestrian Walking Loads on an Aluminium Catwalk

During the last two decades the topic of human induced vibration has attracted a lot of attention among civil engineering practitioners and academics alike. Usually this type of problem may be encountered in pedestrian footbridges or floors of paperless offices. Slender designs are becoming increasingly popular, and as a consequence, the importance of paying attention to vibration serviceability also increases. This paper resumes the results obtained from measurements taken at different points of an aluminium catwalk which is 6 m in length by 0.6 m in width. Measurements were carried out when subjecting the structure to different actions:1)Static test: a steel cylinder of 35 kg was placed in the middle of the catwalk; 2)Dynamic test: this test consists of exciting the structure with singles impulses; 3)Dynamic test: people walking on the catwalk. Identification of the mechanical properties of the structure is an achievement of the paper. Indirect methods were used to estimate properties including the support stiffness, the beam bending stiffness, the mass of the structure (using Rayleigh method and iterative matrix method), the natural frequency (using the time domain and frequency domain analysis) and the damping ratio (by calculating the logarithmic decrement). Experimental results and numerical predictions for the response of an aluminium catwalk subjected to walking loads have been compared. The damping of this light weight structure depends on the amplitude of vibration which complicates the tuning of a structural model. In the light of the results obtained it seems that the used walking load model is not appropriate as the predicted transient vibration values (TTVs) are much higher than the measured ones.

Assessing the impact of adaptive accessibility on the optimal transport policy implementation by using an integrated land-use/transport model for Madrid

Accessibility is an essential concept widely used to evaluate the impact of land-use and transport strategies in transport and urban planning. Accessibility is typically evaluated by using a transport model or a land-use model independently or successively without a feedback loop, thus neglecting the interaction effects between the two systems and the induced competition effects among opportunities due to accessibility improvements. More than a mere methodological curiosity, failure to account for land- use/transport interactions and the competition effect may result in large underestimation of the policy effects. With the recent development of land-use and transport interaction (LUTI) models, there is a growing interest in using these models to adequately measure accessibility and evaluate its impact. The current study joins this research stream by embedding an accessibility measure in a LUTI model with two main aims. The first aim is to account for adaptive accessibility, namely the adjustment of the potential accessibility due to the effect of competition among opportunities (e.g., workplaces) as a result of improved accessibility. LUTI models are particularly suitable for assessing adaptive accessibility because the competition factor is a function of the number of jobs, which is related to land-use attractiveness and the number of workers which is related, among other factors, to the transport demand. The second aim is to identify the optimal implementation scenario of policy measures on the basis of the potential and adaptive accessibility and analyse the results in terms of social welfare and accessibility. The metropolitan area of Madrid is used as a case-study and two transport policy instruments, namely a cordon toll and bus frequency increase, have been chosen for the simulation study in order to present the usefulness of the approach to urban planners and policy makers. The MARS model (Metropolitan Activity Relocation Simulator) calibrated for Madrid was employed as the analysis tool. The impact of accessibility is embedded in the model through a social welfare function that includes not only costs and benefits to both road users and transport operators, but also costs and benefits for the government and society in general (external costs). An optimisation procedure is performed by the MARS model for maximizing the value of objective function in order to find the best (optimal) policy imp lementations intensity (i.e., price, frequency). Last, the two policy strategies are evaluated in terms of their accessibility. Results show that the accessibility with competition factor influences the optimal policy implementation level and also generates different results in terms of social welfare. In addition, mapping the difference between the potential and the adaptive accessibility indicators shows that the main changes occur in areas where there is a strong competition among land-use opportunities.

Self perception of decision making competence in spanish football players

Background: It is known that competence to make decisions is a fundamental aspect of sport competition. Objective: This study has analyzed the decision profile of a sample of Spanish football players of different levels of expertise. Methods: 690 Spanish football players of national and international level completed the decision making questionnaire, which cover three dimensions ? perceived decision competence, decision anxiety and commitment with decision learning. MANCOVA and ANOVA analysis were carried out to analyse the differences in each dimension based on the level of expertise. Results: Results showed that perception of decision making competence increased and the anxiety decreased with the level of expertise. Conclusions: This study confirmed the usefulness of this questionnaire in the process of training for coaches and sport psychologists.

Perception of the sport events held in a permanent facility: the case of the Madrid Sports Palace

The aims of this study were to analyse perceptions regarding the sporting events held in the Madrid Sports Palace and to analyse whether those perceptions vary by age or gender. One hundred and ninetyfive residents answered the Ntloko and Swart (2008) questionnaire. The dimensions most highly rated were economic benefits (3.9±0.8), the event as a regional showcase (3.6±0.7), and the event as entertainment (3.4±0.6). However, the respondents did not agree with the negative environmental impact (2.0±0.8). Men rated the use of public money (z=2.4; pmenor que.05) and the regional showcase (z=2.0 pmenor que.05) more positively than women. Finally, women rated the increase in prices (z=2.0; pmenor que.05) more highly than men. The age groups differed significantly only regarding the promotion of community pride. Seniors and middle-aged adults rated it more positively than young adults (?2(2)=9.9; pmenor que.01). The fact that in an urban sports facility regular sporting events take place on a regular basis means that there are diverse perceptions, though mainly positive, and those perceptions differ from the perceptions about mega events that take place once in a life time at temporary sports facilities.

Assessing the passengers’ perception of implemented advanced management measures in bus service

The aim of this investigation is to evaluate the passenger?s perception of some attributes related to quality of bus services, and how this perception changes with the implementation of different measures. Surveys to passengers riding different bus lines were conducted in two scenarios: before the implementation of the measures and after the measures were implemented. The results of the passenger surveys were statistically analysed; then, an ordered logit model was used to analyse the differences between surveys thanks to the implemented measures. Finally, a factor analysis was done to identify the underlying unobserved factors (latent variables) that the respondents perceived

New QR Survey Methodologies to Analyze User Perception of Service Quality in Public Transport: The Experience of Madrid

Customer Satisfaction Surveys (CSS) have become an important tool for public transport planners, as improvements in the perceived quality of service lead to greater use of public transport and lower traffic pollution. Until now, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) enhancements in public transport have traditionally included fleet management systems based on Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) technologies, which can be used to optimize routing and scheduling, and to feed real-time information into passenger information channels. However, surveys of public transport users could also benefit from the new information technologies. As most customers carry their smartphones when traveling, Quick Response (QR) codes open up the possibility of conducting these surveys at a lower cost.This paper contributes to the limited existing literature by developing the analysis of QR codes applied to CSS in public transport and highlighting their importance in reducing the cost of data collection and processing. The added value of this research is that it provides the first assessment of a real case study in Madrid (Spain) using QR codes for this purpose. This pilot experience was part of a research project analyzing bus service quality in the same case study, so the QR code survey (155 valid questionnaires) was validated using a conventional face-to-face survey (520 valid questionnaires). The results show clearly that, after overcoming a few teething troubles, this QR code application will ultimately provide transport management with a useful tool to reduce survey costs

Haptic teleoperation of mobile robots for augmentation of operator perception in environments with low-wireless signal

Wireless teleoperation of field robots for maintenance, inspection and rescue missions is often performed in environments with low wireless connectivity, caused by signal losses from the environment and distance from the wireless transmitters. Various studies from the literature have addressed these problems with time-delay robust control systems and multi-hop wireless relay networks. However, such approaches do not solve the issue of how to present wireless data to the operator to avoid losing control of the robot. Despite the fact that teleoperation for maintenance often already involves haptic devices, no studies look at the possibility of using this existing feedback to aid operators in navigating within areas of variable wireless connectivity. We propose a method to incorporate haptic information into the velocity control of an omnidirectional robot to augment the operators perception of wireless signal strength in the remote environment. In this paper we introduce a mapping between wireless signal strength from multiple receivers to the force feedback of a 6 Degree of Freedom haptic master and evaluate the proposed approach using experimental data and randomly generated wireless maps

Pedestrian wind comfort: feasibility study of criteria homogenisation

One of the aims of COST C14 action is the assessment and evaluation of pedestrian wind comfort. At present there is no general rule available that is applied across Europe. There are several criteria that have been developed and applied in different countries. These criteria are based on the definition of two independent parameters, a threshold effective wind speed and a probability of exceedence of this threshold speed. The difficulty of the criteria comparison arises from the two-dimensional character of the criteria definition. An effort is being made to compare these criteria, trying both to find commonalities and to clearly identify differences, in order to build up the basis for the next step: to try to define common criteria (perhaps with regional and seasonal variations). The first point is to define clearly the threshold effective wind speed (mean velocity definition parameters: averaging interval and reference height) and equivalence between different ways of defining the threshold effective wind speed (mean wind speed, gust equivalent mean, etc.) in comparable terms (as far as possible). It can be shown that if the wind speed at a given location is defined in terms of a probability distribution, e.g. Weibull function, a given criterion is satisfied by an infinite set of wind conditions, that is, of probability distributions. The criterion parameters and the Weibull function parameters are linked to each other, establishing a set called iso-criteria lines (the locus of the Weibull function parameters that fulfil a given criterion). The relative position of iso-criteria lines when displayed in a suitable two-dimensional plane facilitates the comparison of comfort criteria. The comparison of several wind comfort criteria, coming from several institutes is performed, showing the feasibility and limitations of the method.

Assessing the accessibility impact of transport policy by a land-use and transport interaction model - The case of Madrid

Accessibility is an essential concept widely used to evaluate the impact of transport and land-use strategies in urban planning and policy making. Accessibility is typically evaluated by using separately a transport model or a land-use model. This paper embeds two accessibility indicators (i.e., potential and adaptive accessibility) in a land use and transport interaction (LUTI) model in order to assess transport policies implementation. The first aim is to define the adaptive accessibility, considering the competition factor at territorial level (e.g. workplaces and workers). The second aim is to identify the optimal implementation scenario of policy measures using potential and adaptive accessibility indicators. The analysis of the results in terms of social welfare and accessibility changes closes the paper. Two transport policy measures are applied in Madrid region: a cordon toll and increase bus frequency. They have been simulated through the MARS model (Metropolitan Activity Relocation Simulator, i.e. LUTI model). An optimisation procedure is performed by MARS for maximizing the value of the objective function in order to find the optimal policy implementation (first best). Both policy measures are evaluated in terms of accessibility. Results show that the introduction of the accessibility indicators (potential and adaptive) influence the optimal value of the toll price and bus frequency level, generating different results in terms of social welfare. Mapping the difference between potential and adaptive accessibility indicator shows that the main changes occur in areas where there is a strong competition among different land-use opportunities.