Novel Inductor‐less Conversion Strategy Based on Multiphase Transformer‐Coupled Converters: Analysis, Design and Applications

There are many the requirements that modern power converters should fulfill. Most of the applications where these converters are used, demand smaller converters with high efficiency, improved power density and a fast dynamic response. For instance, loads like microprocessors demand aggressive current steps with very high slew rates (100A/mus and higher); besides, during these load steps, the supply voltage of the microprocessor should be kept within tight limits in order to ensure its correct performance. The accomplishment of these requirements is not an easy task; complex solutions like advanced topologies - such as multiphase converters- as well as advanced control strategies are often needed. Besides, it is also necessary to operate the converter at high switching frequencies and to use capacitors with high capacitance and low ESR. Improving the dynamic response of power converters does not rely only on the control strategy but also the power topology should be suited to enable a fast dynamic response. Moreover, in later years, a fast dynamic response does not only mean accomplishing fast load steps but output voltage steps are gaining importance as well. At least, two applications that require fast voltage changes can be named: Low power microprocessors. In these devices, the voltage supply is changed according to the workload and the operating frequency of the microprocessor is changed at the same time. An important reduction in voltage dependent losses can be achieved with such changes. This technique is known as Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS). Another application where important energy savings can be achieved by means of changing the supply voltage are Radio Frequency Power Amplifiers. For example, RF architectures based on ‘Envelope Tracking’ and ‘Envelope Elimination and Restoration’ techniques can take advantage of voltage supply modulation and accomplish important energy savings in the power amplifier. However, in order to achieve these efficiency improvements, a power converter with high efficiency and high enough bandwidth (hundreds of kHz or even tens of MHz) is necessary in order to ensure an adequate supply voltage. The main objective of this Thesis is to improve the dynamic response of DC-DC converters from the point of view of the power topology. And the term dynamic response refers both to the load steps and the voltage steps; it is also interesting to modulate the output voltage of the converter with a specific bandwidth. In order to accomplish this, the question of what is it that limits the dynamic response of power converters should be answered. Analyzing this question leads to the conclusion that the dynamic response is limited by the power topology and specifically, by the filter inductance of the converter which is found in series between the input and the output of the converter. The series inductance is the one that determines the gain of the converter and provides the regulation capability. Although the energy stored in the filter inductance enables the regulation and the capability of filtering the output voltage, it imposes a limitation which is the concern of this Thesis. The series inductance stores energy and prevents the current from changing in a fast way, limiting the slew rate of the current through this inductor. Different solutions are proposed in the literature in order to reduce the limit imposed by the filter inductor. Many publications proposing new topologies and improvements to known topologies can be found in the literature. Also, complex control strategies are proposed with the objective of improving the dynamic response in power converters. In the proposed topologies, the energy stored in the series inductor is reduced; examples of these topologies are Multiphase converters, Buck converter operating at very high frequency or adding a low impedance path in parallel with the series inductance. Control techniques proposed in the literature, focus on adjusting the output voltage as fast as allowed by the power stage; examples of these control techniques are: hysteresis control, V 2 control, and minimum time control. In some of the proposed topologies, a reduction in the value of the series inductance is achieved and with this, the energy stored in this magnetic element is reduced; less stored energy means a faster dynamic response. However, in some cases (as in the high frequency Buck converter), the dynamic response is improved at the cost of worsening the efficiency. In this Thesis, a drastic solution is proposed: to completely eliminate the series inductance of the converter. This is a more radical solution when compared to those proposed in the literature. If the series inductance is eliminated, the regulation capability of the converter is limited which can make it difficult to use the topology in one-converter solutions; however, this topology is suitable for power architectures where the energy conversion is done by more than one converter. When the series inductor is eliminated from the converter, the current slew rate is no longer limited and it can be said that the dynamic response of the converter is independent from the switching frequency. This is the main advantage of eliminating the series inductor. The main objective, is to propose an energy conversion strategy that is done without series inductance. Without series inductance, no energy is stored between the input and the output of the converter and the dynamic response would be instantaneous if all the devices were ideal. If the energy transfer from the input to the output of the converter is done instantaneously when a load step occurs, conceptually it would not be necessary to store energy at the output of the converter (no output capacitor COUT would be needed) and if the input source is ideal, the input capacitor CIN would not be necessary. This last feature (no CIN with ideal VIN) is common to all power converters. However, when the concept is actually implemented, parasitic inductances such as leakage inductance of the transformer and the parasitic inductance of the PCB, cannot be avoided because they are inherent to the implementation of the converter. These parasitic elements do not affect significantly to the proposed concept. In this Thesis, it is proposed to operate the converter without series inductance in order to improve the dynamic response of the converter; however, on the other side, the continuous regulation capability of the converter is lost. It is said continuous because, as it will be explained throughout the Thesis, it is indeed possible to achieve discrete regulation; a converter without filter inductance and without energy stored in the magnetic element, is capable to achieve a limited number of output voltages. The changes between these output voltage levels are achieved in a fast way. The proposed energy conversion strategy is implemented by means of a multiphase converter where the coupling of the phases is done by discrete two-winding transformers instead of coupledinductors since transformers are, ideally, no energy storing elements. This idea is the main contribution of this Thesis. The feasibility of this energy conversion strategy is first analyzed and then verified by simulation and by the implementation of experimental prototypes. Once the strategy is proved valid, different options to implement the magnetic structure are analyzed. Three different discrete transformer arrangements are studied and implemented. A converter based on this energy conversion strategy would be designed with a different approach than the one used to design classic converters since an additional design degree of freedom is available. The switching frequency can be chosen according to the design specifications without penalizing the dynamic response or the efficiency. Low operating frequencies can be chosen in order to favor the efficiency; on the other hand, high operating frequencies (MHz) can be chosen in order to favor the size of the converter. For this reason, a particular design procedure is proposed for the ‘inductorless’ conversion strategy. Finally, applications where the features of the proposed conversion strategy (high efficiency with fast dynamic response) are advantageus, are proposed. For example, in two-stage power architectures where a high efficiency converter is needed as the first stage and there is a second stage that provides the fine regulation. Another example are RF power amplifiers where the voltage is modulated following an envelope reference in order to save power; in this application, a high efficiency converter, capable of achieving fast voltage steps is required. The main contributions of this Thesis are the following: The proposal of a conversion strategy that is done, ideally, without storing energy in the magnetic element. The validation and the implementation of the proposed energy conversion strategy. The study of different magnetic structures based on discrete transformers for the implementation of the proposed energy conversion strategy. To elaborate and validate a design procedure. To identify and validate applications for the proposed energy conversion strategy. It is important to remark that this work is done in collaboration with Intel. The particular features of the proposed conversion strategy enable the possibility of solving the problems related to microprocessor powering in a different way. For example, the high efficiency achieved with the proposed conversion strategy enables it as a good candidate to be used for power conditioning, as a first stage in a two-stage power architecture for powering microprocessors.

Low-density InAs QDs with subcritical coverage obtained by conversion of In nanocrystals

We report growth of InAs/GaAs quantum dots (QDs) by molecular beam epitaxy with low density of 2 μm−2 by conversion of In nanocrystals deposited at low temperatures. The total amount of InAs used is about one monolayer, which is less than the critical thickness for conventional Stranski–Krastanov QDs. We also demonstrate the importance of the starting surface reconstruction for obtaining uniform QDs. The QD emission wavelength is easily tunable upon post-growth annealing with no wetting layer signal visible for short anneals. Microphotoluminescence measurements reveal well separated and sharp emission lines of individual QDs.

Cálculo de pilas con aparatos de apoyo tipo POT y tablero con punto fijo

In recent years a great number of high speed railway bridges have been constructed within the Spanish borders. Due to the demanding high speed trains route's geometrical requirements, bridges frequently show remarkable lengths. This fact is the main reason why railway bridges are overall longer than roadway bridges. In the same line, it is also worth highlighting the importance of high speed trains braking forces compared to vehicles. While vehicles braking forces can be tackled easily, the railway braking forces demand the existence of a fixed-point. It is generally located at abutments where the no-displacements requirement can be more easily achieved. In some other cases the fixed-point is placed in one of the interior columns. As a consequence of these bridges' length and the need of a fixed-point, temperature, creep and shrinkage strains lead to fairly significant deck displacements, which become greater with the distance to the fixed-point. These displacements need to be accommodated by the piers and bearings deformation. Regular elastomeric bearings are not able to allow such displacements and therefore are not suitable for this task. For this reason, the use of sliding PTFE POT bearings has been an extensive practice mainly because they permit sliding with low friction. This is not the only reason of the extensive use of these bearings to high-speed railways bridges. The value of the vertical loads at each bent is significantly higher than in roadway bridges. This is so mainly because the live loads due to trains traffic are much greater than vehicles. Thus, gravel rails foundation represents a non-negligible permanent load at all. All this together increases the value of vertical loads to be withstood. This high vertical load demand discards the use of conventional bearings for excessive compressions. The PTFE POT bearings' higher technology allows to accommodate this level of compression thanks to their design. The previously explained high-speed railway bridge configuration leads to a key fact regarding longitudinal horizontal loads (such as breaking forces) which is the transmission of these loads entirely to the fixed-point alone. Piers do not receive these longitudinal horizontal loads since PTFE POT bearings displayed are longitudinally free-sliding. This means that longitudinal horizontal actions on top of piers will not be forces but imposed displacements. This feature leads to the need to approach these piers design in a different manner that when piers are elastically linked to superstructure, which is the case of elastomeric bearings. In response to the previous, the main goal of this Thesis is to present a Design Method for columns displaying either longitudinally fixed POT bearings or longitudinally free PTFE POT bearings within bridges with fixed-point deck configuration, applicable to railway and road vehicles bridges. The method was developed with the intention to account for all major parameters that play a role in these columns behavior. The long process that has finally led to the method's formulation is rooted in the understanding of these column's behavior. All the assumptions made to elaborate the formulations contained in this method have been made in benefit of conservatives results. The singularity of the analysis of columns with this configuration is due to a combination of different aspects. One of the first steps of this work was to study they of these design aspects and understand the role each plays in the column's response. Among these aspects, special attention was dedicated to the column's own creep due to permanent actions such us rheological deck displacements, and also to the longitudinally guided PTFE POT bearings implications in the design of the column. The result of this study is the Design Method presented in this Thesis, that allows to work out a compliant vertical reinforcement distribution along the column. The design of horizontal reinforcement due to shear forces is not addressed in this Thesis. The method's formulations are meant to be applicable to the greatest number of cases, leaving to the engineer judgement many of the different parameters values. In this regard, this method is a helpful tool for a wide range of cases. The widespread use of European standards in the more recent years, in particular the so-called Eurocodes, has been one of the reasons why this Thesis has been developed in accordance with Eurocodes. Same trend has been followed for the bearings design implications, which are covered by the rather recent European code EN-1337. One of the most relevant aspects that this work has taken from the Eurocodes is the non-linear calculations security format. The biaxial bending simplified approach that shows the Design Method presented in this work also lies on Eurocodes recommendations. The columns under analysis are governed by a set of dimensionless parameters that are presented in this work. The identification of these parameters is a helpful for design purposes for two columns with identical dimensionless parameters may be designed together. The first group of these parameters have to do with the cross-sectional behavior, represented in the bending-curvature diagrams. A second group of parameters define the columns response. Thanks to this identification of the governing dimensionless parameters, it has been possible what has been named as Dimensionless Design Curves, which basically allows to obtain in a reduced time a preliminary vertical reinforcement column distribution. These curves are of little use nowadays, firstly because each family of curves refer to specific values of many different parameters and secondly because the use of computers allows for extremely quick and accurate calculations.

Two-photon photocurrent and voltage up-conversion in a quantum dot intermediate band solar cell

It has been proposed that the use of self-assembled quantum dot (QD) arrays can break the Shockley-Queisser efficiency limit by extending the absorption of solar cells into the low-energy photon range while preserving their output voltage. This would be possible if the infrared photons are absorbed in the two sub-bandgap QD transitions simultaneously and the energy of two photons is added up to produce one single electron-hole pair, as described by the intermediate band model. Here, we present an InAs/Al 0.25Ga 0.75As QD solar cell that exhibits such electrical up-conversion of low-energy photons. When the device is monochromatically illuminated with 1.32 eV photons, open-circuit voltages as high as 1.58 V are measured (for a total gap of 1.8 eV). Moreover, the photocurrent produced by illumination with photons exciting the valence band to intermediate band (VB-IB) and the intermediate band to conduction band (IB-CB) transitions can be both spectrally resolved. The first corresponds to the QD inter-band transition and is observable for photons of energy mayor que 1 eV, and the later corresponds to the QD intra-band transition and peaks around 0.5 eV. The voltage up-conversion process reported here for the first time is the key to the use of the low-energy end of the solar spectrum to increase the conversion efficiency, and not only the photocurrent, of single-junction photovoltaic devices. In spite of the low absorption threshold measured in our devices - 0.25 eV - we report open-circuit voltages at room temperature as high as 1.12 V under concentrated broadband illumination.

Three-terminal heterojunction bipolar transistor solar cell for high-efficiency photovoltaic conversion

Here we propose, for the first time, a solar cell characterized by a semiconductor transistor structure (n/p/n or p/n/p) where the base-emitter junction is made of a high-bandgap semiconductor and the collector is made of a low-bandgap semiconductor. We calculate its detailed-balance efficiency limit and prove that it is the same one than that of a double-junction solar cell. The practical importance of this result relies on the simplicity of the structure that reduces the number of layers that are required to match the limiting efficiency of dual-junction solar cells without using tunnel junctions. The device naturally emerges as a three-terminal solar cell and can also be used as building block of multijunction solar cells with an increased number of junctions.