El problema del rozamiento en el análisis de estructuras de fábrica mediante modelos de sólidos rígidos

La evaluación de la seguridad de estructuras antiguas de fábrica es un problema abierto.El material es heterogéneo y anisótropo, el estado previo de tensiones difícil de conocer y las condiciones de contorno inciertas. A comienzos de los años 50 se demostró que el análisis límite era aplicable a este tipo de estructuras, considerándose desde entonces como una herramienta adecuada. En los casos en los que no se produce deslizamiento la aplicación de los teoremas del análisis límite estándar constituye una herramienta formidable por su simplicidad y robustez. No es necesario conocer el estado real de tensiones. Basta con encontrar cualquier solución de equilibrio, y que satisfaga las condiciones de límite del material, en la seguridad de que su carga será igual o inferior a la carga real de inicio de colapso. Además esta carga de inicio de colapso es única (teorema de la unicidad) y se puede obtener como el óptimo de uno cualquiera entre un par de programas matemáticos convexos duales. Sin embargo, cuando puedan existir mecanismos de inicio de colapso que impliquen deslizamientos, cualquier solución debe satisfacer tanto las restricciones estáticas como las cinemáticas, así como un tipo especial de restricciones disyuntivas que ligan las anteriores y que pueden plantearse como de complementariedad. En este último caso no está asegurada la existencia de una solución única, por lo que es necesaria la búsqueda de otros métodos para tratar la incertidumbre asociada a su multiplicidad. En los últimos años, la investigación se ha centrado en la búsqueda de un mínimo absoluto por debajo del cual el colapso sea imposible. Este método es fácil de plantear desde el punto de vista matemático, pero intratable computacionalmente, debido a las restricciones de complementariedad 0 y z 0 que no son ni convexas ni suaves. El problema de decisión resultante es de complejidad computacional No determinista Polinomial (NP)- completo y el problema de optimización global NP-difícil. A pesar de ello, obtener una solución (sin garantía de exito) es un problema asequible. La presente tesis propone resolver el problema mediante Programación Lineal Secuencial, aprovechando las especiales características de las restricciones de complementariedad, que escritas en forma bilineal son del tipo y z = 0; y 0; z 0 , y aprovechando que el error de complementariedad (en forma bilineal) es una función de penalización exacta. Pero cuando se trata de encontrar la peor solución, el problema de optimización global equivalente es intratable (NP-difícil). Además, en tanto no se demuestre la existencia de un principio de máximo o mínimo, existe la duda de que el esfuerzo empleado en aproximar este mínimo esté justificado. En el capítulo 5, se propone hallar la distribución de frecuencias del factor de carga, para todas las soluciones de inicio de colapso posibles, sobre un sencillo ejemplo. Para ello, se realiza un muestreo de soluciones mediante el método de Monte Carlo, utilizando como contraste un método exacto de computación de politopos. El objetivo final es plantear hasta que punto está justificada la busqueda del mínimo absoluto y proponer un método alternativo de evaluación de la seguridad basado en probabilidades. Las distribuciones de frecuencias, de los factores de carga correspondientes a las soluciones de inicio de colapso obtenidas para el caso estudiado, muestran que tanto el valor máximo como el mínimo de los factores de carga son muy infrecuentes, y tanto más, cuanto más perfecto y contínuo es el contacto. Los resultados obtenidos confirman el interés de desarrollar nuevos métodos probabilistas. En el capítulo 6, se propone un método de este tipo basado en la obtención de múltiples soluciones, desde puntos de partida aleatorios y calificando los resultados mediante la Estadística de Orden. El propósito es determinar la probabilidad de inicio de colapso para cada solución.El método se aplica (de acuerdo a la reducción de expectativas propuesta por la Optimización Ordinal) para obtener una solución que se encuentre en un porcentaje determinado de las peores. Finalmente, en el capítulo 7, se proponen métodos híbridos, incorporando metaheurísticas, para los casos en que la búsqueda del mínimo global esté justificada. Abstract Safety assessment of the historic masonry structures is an open problem. The material is heterogeneous and anisotropic, the previous state of stress is hard to know and the boundary conditions are uncertain. In the early 50's it was proven that limit analysis was applicable to this kind of structures, being considered a suitable tool since then. In cases where no slip occurs, the application of the standard limit analysis theorems constitutes an excellent tool due to its simplicity and robustness. It is enough find any equilibrium solution which satisfy the limit constraints of the material. As we are certain that this load will be equal to or less than the actual load of the onset of collapse, it is not necessary to know the actual stresses state. Furthermore this load for the onset of collapse is unique (uniqueness theorem), and it can be obtained as the optimal from any of two mathematical convex duals programs However, if the mechanisms of the onset of collapse involve sliding, any solution must satisfy both static and kinematic constraints, and also a special kind of disjunctive constraints linking the previous ones, which can be formulated as complementarity constraints. In the latter case, it is not guaranted the existence of a single solution, so it is necessary to look for other ways to treat the uncertainty associated with its multiplicity. In recent years, research has been focused on finding an absolute minimum below which collapse is impossible. This method is easy to set from a mathematical point of view, but computationally intractable. This is due to the complementarity constraints 0 y z 0 , which are neither convex nor smooth. The computational complexity of the resulting decision problem is "Not-deterministic Polynomialcomplete" (NP-complete), and the corresponding global optimization problem is NP-hard. However, obtaining a solution (success is not guaranteed) is an affordable problem. This thesis proposes solve that problem through Successive Linear Programming: taking advantage of the special characteristics of complementarity constraints, which written in bilinear form are y z = 0; y 0; z 0 ; and taking advantage of the fact that the complementarity error (bilinear form) is an exact penalty function. But when it comes to finding the worst solution, the (equivalent) global optimization problem is intractable (NP-hard). Furthermore, until a minimum or maximum principle is not demonstrated, it is questionable that the effort expended in approximating this minimum is justified. XIV In chapter 5, it is proposed find the frequency distribution of the load factor, for all possible solutions of the onset of collapse, on a simple example. For this purpose, a Monte Carlo sampling of solutions is performed using a contrast method "exact computation of polytopes". The ultimate goal is to determine to which extent the search of the global minimum is justified, and to propose an alternative approach to safety assessment based on probabilities. The frequency distributions for the case study show that both the maximum and the minimum load factors are very infrequent, especially when the contact gets more perfect and more continuous. The results indicates the interest of developing new probabilistic methods. In Chapter 6, is proposed a method based on multiple solutions obtained from random starting points, and qualifying the results through Order Statistics. The purpose is to determine the probability for each solution of the onset of collapse. The method is applied (according to expectations reduction given by the Ordinal Optimization) to obtain a solution that is in a certain percentage of the worst. Finally, in Chapter 7, hybrid methods incorporating metaheuristics are proposed for cases in which the search for the global minimum is justified.

New analysis and estimations of atmospheric attenuation at 100 GHz using meteorological data in Madrid

Atmospheric propagation at frequencies within the THz domain are deeply affected by the influence of the composition and phenomena of the troposphere. This paper is focused on the estimation of first order statistics of total attenuation under non-rainy conditions at 100 GHz. With this purpose, a yearly meteorological database from Madrid, including radiosoundings, SYNOP observations and co-site rain gauge, have been used in order to calculate attenuation due to atmospheric gases and clouds, as well as to introduce and evaluate a rain detection method. This method allows to filter out rain events and refine the statistics of total attenuation under the scenarios under study. It is expected that the behavior of the statistics would be closest to the ones obtained by experimental techniques under similar conditions.

Improvement of theoretical storm characterization for different climate conditions

The different theoretical models related with storm wave characterization focus on determining the significant wave height of the peak storm, the mean period and, usually assuming a triangle storm shape, their duration. In some cases, the main direction is also considered. Nevertheless, definition of the whole storm history, including the variation of the main random variables during the storm cycle is not taken into consideration. The representativeness of the proposed storm models, analysed in a recent study using an empirical maximum energy flux time dependent function shows that the behaviour of the different storm models is extremely dependent on the climatic characteristics of the project area. Moreover, there are no theoretical models able to adequately reproduce storm history evolution of the sea states characterized by important swell components. To overcome this shortcoming, several theoretical storm shapes are investigated taking into consideration the bases of the three best theoretical storm models, the Equivalent Magnitude Storm (EMS), the Equivalent Number of Waves Storm (ENWS) and the Equivalent Duration Storm (EDS) models. To analyse the representativeness of the new storm shape, the aforementioned maximum energy flux formulation and a wave overtopping discharge structure function are used. With the empirical energy flux formulation, correctness of the different approaches is focussed on the progressive hydraulic stability loss of the main armour layer caused by real and theoretical storms. For the overtopping structure equation, the total volume of discharge is considered. In all cases, the results obtained highlight the greater representativeness of the triangular EMS model for sea waves and the trapezoidal (nonparallel sides) EMS model for waves with a higher degree of wave development. Taking into account the increase in offshore and shallow water wind turbines, maritime transport and deep vertical breakwaters, the maximum wave height of the whole storm history and that corresponding to each sea state belonging to its cycle's evolution is also considered. The procedure considers the information usually available for extreme waves' characterization. Extrapolations of the maximum wave height of the selected storms have also been considered. The 4th order statistics of the sea state belonging to the real and theoretical storm have been estimated to complete the statistical analysis of individual wave height