Risk of Leaching in Soils Amended by Compost and digestate from Municipal Solid Waste

New European directives have proposed the direct application of compost and digestate produced from municipal solid wastes as organic matter sources in agricultural soils. Therefore information about phosphorus leaching from these residues when they are applied to the soil is increasingly mportant. Leaching experiments were conducted to determine the P mobility in compost and digestate mixtures, supplying equivalent amounts to 100 kg P ha?1 to three different types of soils. The tests were performed in accordance with CEN/TS 14405:2004 analyzing the maximum dissolved reactive P and the kinetic rate in the leachate. P biowaste fractionation indicated that digestate has a higher level of available P than compost has. In contrast, P losses in leaching experiments with soil-compost mixtureswere higher than in soil-digestate mixtures. For bothwastes, therewas no correlation between disolved reactive P lost and the water soluble P.The interaction between soil and waste, the long experimentation time, and the volume of leachate obtained caused the waste?s wettability to become an influential parameter in P leaching behavior. The overall conclusion is that kinetic data analysis provides valuable information concerning the sorption mechanism that can be used for predicting the large-scale behavior of soil systems.

Use of alternative fuels obtained from renewable sources in brayton cycles

Analysis and simulation of the behaviour of gas turbines for power generation using different nonconventional fuels obtained from different renewable sources are presented. Three biomass-tobiofuel processes are considered: anaerobic digestion of biomass (biogas), biomass gasification (synthesis gas) and alcoholic fermentation of biomass and dehydration (bioethanol), each of them with two different biomass substrates (energy crops and municipal solid waste) as input. The gas turbine behaviour in a Brayton cycle is simulated both in an isolated operation and in combined cycle. The differences in gas turbine performance when fired with the considered biofuels compared to natural gas are studied from different points of view related with the current complex energetic context: energetic and exergetic efficiency of the simple/combined cycle and CO2 emissions. Two different tools have been used for the simulations, each one with a different approach: while PATITUG (own software) analyses the behaviour of a generic gas turbine allowing a total variability of parameters, GT-PRO (commercial software) is more rigid, albeit more precise in the prediction of real gas turbine behaviour. Different potentially interesting configurations and its thermodynamic parameters have been simulated in order to obtain the optimal range for all of them and its variation for each fuel.

Use of alternative fuels obtained from renowable sources in Brayton cycles

Analysis and simulation of the behaviour of gas turbines for power generation using different nonconventional fuels obtained from different renewable sources are presented. Three biomass-tobiofuel processes are considered: anaerobic digestion of biomass (biogas), biomass gasification (synthesis gas) and alcoholic fermentation of biomass and dehydration (bioethanol), each of them with two different biomass substrates (energy crops and municipal solid waste) as input. The gas turbine behaviour in a Brayton cycle is simulated both in an isolated operation and in combined cycle. The differences in gas turbine performance when fired with the considered biofuels compared to natural gas are studied from different points of view related with the current complex energetic context: energetic and exergetic efficiency of the simple/combined cycle and CO2 emissions. Two different tools have been used for the simulations, each one with a different approach: while PATITUG (own software) analyses the behaviour of a generic gas turbine allowing a total variability of parameters, GT-PRO (commercial software) is more rigid, albeit more precise in the prediction of real gas turbine behaviour. Different potentially interesting configurations and its thermodynamic parameters have been simulated in order to obtain the optimal range for all of them and its variation for each fuel.

Carbon dioxide emissions from semi-arid soils amended with biochar alone or combined with mineral and organic fertilizers

Semi-arid soils cover a significant area of Earth s land surface and typically contain large amounts of inorganic C. Determining the effects of biochar additions on CO2 emissions fromsemi-arid soils is therefore essential for evaluating the potential of biochar as a climate change mitigation strategy. Here, we measured the CO2 that evolved from semi-arid calcareous soils amended with biochar at rates of 0 and 20 t ha?1 in a full factorial combination with three different fertilizers (mineral fertilizer, municipal solid waste compost, and sewage sludge) applied at four rates (equivalent to 0, 75, 150, and 225 kg potentially available N ha?1) during 182 days of aerobic incubation. A double exponential model, which describes cumulative CO2 emissions from two active soil C compartments with different turnover rates (one relatively stable and the other more labile), was found to fit verywell all the experimental datasets. In general, the organic fertilizers increased the size and decomposition rate of the stable and labile soil C pools. In contrast, biochar addition had no effects on any of the double exponential model parameters and did not interact with the effects ascribed to the type and rate of fertilizer. After 182 days of incubation, soil organic and microbial biomass C contents tended to increase with increasing the application rates of organic fertilizer, especially of compost, whereas increasing the rate of mineral fertilizer tended to suppress microbial biomass. Biochar was found to increase both organic and inorganic C contents in soil and not to interactwith the effects of type and rate of fertilizer on C fractions. As a whole, our results suggest that the use of biochar as enhancer of semi-arid soils, either alone or combined with mineral and organic fertilizers, is unlikely to increase abiotic and biotic soil CO2 emissions.

Análisis de la degradación, desintegración y biodegradabilidad de bolsas de poliéster y almidón en compostaje de residuos urbanos: escalas de laboratorio e industrial

El principal objetivo de esta tesis es verificar que las bolsas biodegradables de copoliéster (PBAT) con base de almidón (UNE 13432: 2001) alcanzan los niveles de degradación y desintegración requeridos para su certificación (%D= ≥ 90%), medido en condiciones reales de compostaje industrial. Para lograr mayor representatividad, los ensayos se han realizado en dos plantas de tratamiento de residuos urbanos en las que se aplican las técnicas de compostaje más comunes en el ámbito europeo y nacional, pila y túnel, mediante el compostaje de la FORSU. Se llevaron a cabo dos tipos de ensayos. Por un lado se realizó un ensayo escala de laboratorio (ISO 14855), orientado como indicador de la biodegradabilidad del polímero en el formato bolsa comercializado. Por otro lado, se desarrollaron una batería de ensayos realizados en dos plantas de compostaje de residuos urbanos: el Centro de Tratamiento de Residuos de Torija (Ávila), que realiza el compostaje mediante pila volteada, y el Centro de Tratamiento de Residuos de Arenas de San Pedro (Ávila), que realiza el compostaje en túnel. Para la obtención de resultados se han contrastado parámetros como el porcentaje de biodegradación (%B), el porcentaje de desintegración (%D), degradación superficial de las muestras, calidad de la FORSU inicial (caracterizaciones y análisis físico-químico) y calidad del MB final (análisis físico-químico e IG). Atendiendo al objetivo general se demuestra que las bolsas de copoliéster con base de almidón certificadas (UNE EN 13432:2001) han alcanzado el 94,37% ± 0,007% de desintegración en la planta de compostaje de FORSU con pila volteada; y el 86,36% ± 0,151% en la planta de compostaje de FORSU con túnel estático. A pesar de la aparente diferencia, el resultado del análisis concluye que no existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre técnicas de compostaje. La presencia de impropios y el contendido de metales pesados en la FORSU no han influido en la desintegración de las bolsas de estudio. En cambio, se ha detectado una influencia estadísticamente significativa entre el contenido de materia orgánica total y de nutrientes de la FORSU y el porcentaje de desintegración de las muestras. No se detectado una relación estadísticamente significativa entre la presencia de bolsas de estudio en las concentraciones definidas, y la calidad del MB, medido mediante el análisis físico-químico, microbiológico y el IG del MB. La concentración de los metales pesados en la mayoría de las muestras de material bioestabilizado cumplió con los límites establecidos para la categoría A, aplicable al “compost” procedente de la fracción orgánica recogida de forma separada según el RD 506/2013 de productos fertilizantes. También se detectó fitotoxicidad alta (FA) según la metodología y criterios de valoración definidos. Esta fitotoxicidad no está relacionada con la presencia de las bolsas de estudio sino con la calidad de la FORSU de partida y/o con los productos liberados durante el proceso de compostaje. ABSTRACT The main objective of this thesis is to verify that the copolyester (PBAT) starch based (UNE 13432: 2001) biodegradable bags reach levels of degradation and disintegration required for it´s certification (% D = ≥ 90%), measured in terms of real industrial composting. The tests were performed at two municipal solid waste (MSW) treatment plants, where the most common composting techniques applied at European and national level were represented, windrow and tunnel. Two types of tests were carried out: First, a laboratory scale test (ISO 14855), as an indicator of the polymer biodegradation of the commercialized bag format. Second, a battery of tests was conducted at two MSW composting plants, Waste Treatment Center of Torija (Guadalajara), that makes compost by turned pile, and the Waste Treatment Center of Arenas de San Pedro (Ávila), where makes compost by static tunnel. To obtain the results, the parameters such as the biodegradation percentage (% B), the disintegration percentage (% D), surface degradation of the samples, the initial quality of FORSU (characterizations and physico-chemical analysis) and bioestabilithated material (MB) quality (physico-chemical analysis and IG) have been compared. In reference to the general aim It shows that the copolyester starch based certified (UNE-EN 13432) bags have reached 94.37% ± 0.007% of disintegration in the composting turned pile; and 86.36% ± 0.151% in the static tunnel. Despite the apparent difference, the result of the analysis concludes that there are no statistically significant differences between composting techniques. The presence of non-compostable materials and the heavy metals content in the FORSU has not affected in the disintegration of the bags. Instead, It has been detected a statistically significant influence over the total organic matter content and nutrient content in the FORSU and the samples disintegration percentage. A statistically significant relationship between the bag presence in the defined concentrations and the quality of MB measured by physical-chemical analysis, microbiological analysis and IG of the MB is not detected. The concentration of heavy metals in most MB samples was within the limits of A-Class, applicable to "compost" from organic waste collected separately according to RD 506/2013 of fertilizers. High phytotoxicity (FA) was also detected according to the methodology and evaluation defined. The phytotoxicity is not related to the presence of bags but it is with the FORSU initial quality and/or with the products released during the composting process.

Sostenibilidad en el sector de la construcción. Sostenibilidad en estructuras y puentes ferroviarios

La escasez de recursos, el cambio climático, la pobreza y el subdesarrollo, los desastres naturales, son solo algunos de los grandes retos a que se enfrenta la humanidad y a los que la economía verde y el desarrollo sostenible tienen que dar respuesta. El concepto sostenible surge a raíz de la necesidad de lograr en todas las actividades humanas un nuevo equilibrio con el medioambiente, la sociedad y la economía, es decir un desarrollo más sostenible. La construcción supone en este nuevo concepto un sector básico, con grandes impactos en los recursos, los residuos, las emisiones, la biodiversidad, el paisaje, las necesidades sociales, la integración, el desarrollo económico del entorno, etc. Es por ello, que la construcción sostenible tiene una importancia esencial como demuestra su amplia aplicación teórica y práctica ya en proyectos de planificación urbana y de edificación. En la ingeniería civil estas aproximaciones son todavía mínimas, aunque ya se están considerando ciertos criterios de sostenibilidad en proyectos de construcción. La construcción consume muchos recursos naturales, económicos y tiene gran incidencia social. En la actualidad su actividad consume un 30% de los recursos extraídos de la tierra y la energía, y en consecuencia genera el 30% de los gases de efecto invernadero y residuos sólidos del mundo (EEA, 2014). Este impacto debería suponer una gran responsabilidad para los profesionales y gobiernos que toman cada día las decisiones de diseño e inversión en la construcción, y su máxima eficiencia debería estar muy presente entre los objetivos. En esta tesis doctoral se plantea un nuevo modelo para la evaluación de la sostenibilidad en los proyectos mediante un sistema de indicadores, basados en las áreas de estudio de las certificaciones de sostenibilidad existentes y en un análisis multi-criterio de cada uno de los axiomas de la sostenibilidad. Como reto principal se marca la propuesta de una metodología que permita identificar, priorizar y seleccionar los indicadores y las variables más importantes de lo que es considerado como una construcción sostenible en el caso de infraestructuras ferroviarias, más concretamente en puentes ferroviarios, y que además sirva para priorizar nuevos proyectos que se adapten a los nuevos objetivos del desarrollo sostenible: el respeto al medioambiente, la integración social y la económica. El objetivo es la aplicación de estos indicadores desde las etapas más tempranas del proyecto: planificación, diseño de alternativas y selección de alternativas. Para ello, en primer lugar, se ha realizado un análisis en profundidad de los distintas organizaciones de certificación de la sostenibilidad mundiales y se ha desarrollado una comparativa entre ellas, detallando el funcionamiento de las más extendidas (BREEAM, LEED, VERDE, DGNB). Tras esto, se ha analizado la herramienta matemática MIVES de análisis multi-criterio para su aplicación, en la tesis, a las infraestructuras ferroviarias. En la segunda parte se desarrolla para las estructuras ferroviarias un nuevo modelo de indicadores, un sistema de ayuda a la decisión multi-criterio basado en los tres axiomas de las sostenibilidad (sociedad, medioambiente y economía), articulados en un árbol de requerimientos inspirado en el método MIVES, que propone una metodología para el caso de las infraestructuras ferroviarias. La metodología MIVES estructura el proceso de decisión en tres ramas: Requisitos, componentes y ciclo de vida. Estas ramas definen los límites de los sistemas. El eje de los requisitos del árbol de los requisitos o se estructura en tres niveles que corresponden al requisito específico: criterios e indicadores. Además, es necesario definen la función del valor para cada indicador, definen el peso de importancia de cada elemento del árbol y finalmente con el calcular el valor de cada alternativa selecciona el mejor de él. La generación de este árbol de requerimientos en estructuras ferroviarias y la medición de los parámetro es original para este tipo de estructuras. Por último, tras el desarrollo de la metodología, se ha aplicado la propuesta metodológica mediante la implementación práctica, utilizando el método propuesto con 2 puentes ferroviarios existentes. Los resultados han mostrado que la herramienta es capaz de establecer una ordenación de las actuaciones coherente y suficientemente discriminante como para que el decisor no tenga dudas cuando deba tomar la decisión. Esta fase, es una de las grandes aportaciones de la tesis, ya que permite diferenciar los pesos obtenidos en cada una de las áreas de estudio y donde la toma de decisión puede variar dependiendo de las necesidades del decisor, la ubicación del puente de estudio etc. ABSTRACT Scarce resources, climate change, poverty and underdevelopment, natural disasters are just some of the great challenges facing humanity and to which the green economy will have to respond. The sustainable concept arises from the need for all human activities in a new equilibrium with the environment, society and the economy, which is known as sustainable development. The construction industry is part of this concept, because of its major impacts on resources, waste, emissions, biodiversity, landscape, social needs, integration, economical development, environment, etc. Therefore, sustainable construction has a critical importance as already demonstrated by its wide application and theoretical practice in urban planning and building projects. In civil engineering, these approaches are still minimal, although some criteria are already taken into account for sustainability in infrastructure projects. The construction industry requires a lot of natural resources, has a real economic relevance and a huge social impact. Currently, it consumes 40% of produced power as well as natural resources extracted from the earth and thus leads to an environmental impact of 40% regarding greenhouse gas emissions and solid wastes (EEA 2014). These repercussions should highly concern our governments and professional of this industry on the decisions they take regarding investments and designs. They must be inflexible in order to ensure that the main concern has to be a maximum efficiency. Major events like the COP21 held in Paris in December 2015 are a concrete signal of the worldwide awareness of the huge impact of each industry on climate. In this doctoral thesis a new model for the evaluation of the sustainability in the projects by means of a system of indicators, based on the areas of study of the existing certifications of sustainability and on an analysis considers multi-criterion of each one of the axioms of the sustainability. The primary aim of this thesis is to study the mode of application of sustainability in projects through a system of indicators. . The main challenge consists of create a methodology suitable to identify, prioritize and select the most important indicators which define if a building is sustainable in the specific case of railway infrastructures. The methodology will help to adapt future projects to the new goals of sustainable development which are respect of nature, social integration and economic relevance. A crucial point is the consideration of these indicators from the very beginning steps of the projects: planning, design and alternatives reflections. First of all, a complete inventory of all world energy certification organizations has been made in order to compare the most representative ones regarding their way of functioning (BREEAM, LEED, VERDE, DGNB). After this, mathematical tool MIVES of analysis has been analyzed multi-criterion for its application, in the thesis, to railway infrastructures. The second part of the thesis is aimed to develop a new model of indicators, inspired by the MIVES method, consisting in a decision-making system based on the 3 foundations of sustainability: nature impact, social concerns, and economic relevance. The methodology MIVES structures the decision process in three axes: Requirements, components and life cycle. These axes define the boundaries of the systems. The axis of requirements o tree requirements is structured in three levels corresponding to specific requirement: criteria and indicators. In addition, is necessary define the value function for each indicator, define the weight of importance of each element of the tree and finally with the calculate the value of each alternative select the best of them. The generation of this tree requirements in railway structures and measuring the parameter is original for this type of structures. Finally, after the development of the methodology, it has validated the methodology through practical implementation, applying the proposed method 2 existing railway bridges. The results showed that the tool is able to establish a coherent management of performances and discriminating enough so that the decision maker should not have doubts when making the decision. This phase, is one of the great contributions of the thesis, since it allows to differentiate the weights obtained in each one from the study areas and where the decision making can vary depending on the necessities of the decisor, the location of the bridge of study etc.