Vehicular traffic surveillance and road lane detection using radar interferometry

Speed enforcement on public roadways is an important issue in order to guarantee road security and to reduce the number and seriousness of traffic accidents. Traditionally, this task has been partially solved using radar and/or laser technologies and, more recently, using video-camera based systems. All these systems have significant shortcomings that have yet to be overcome. The main drawback of classical Doppler radar technology is that the velocity measurement fails when several vehicles are in the radars beam. Modern radar systems are able to measure speed and range between vehicle and radar. However, this is not enough to discriminate the lane where the vehicle is driving on. The limitation of several vehicles in the beam is overcome using laser technology. However, laser systems have another important limitation: They cannot measure the speed of several vehicles simultaneously. Novel video-camera systems, based on license plate identification, solve the previous drawbacks, but they have the problem that they can only measure average speed but never top-speed. This paper studies the feasibility of using an interferometric linear frequency modulated continuous wave radar to improve top-speed enforcement on roadways. Two different systems based on down-the-road and across-the-road radar configurations are presented. The main advantage of the proposed solutions is they can simultaneously measure speed, range, and lane of several vehicles, allowing the univocal identification of the offenders. A detailed analysis about the operation and accuracy of these solutions is reported. In addition, the feasibility of the proposed techniques has been demonstrated with simulations and real experiments using a Ka-band interferometric radar developed by our research group.

Proposal of an Alternative Model for Speed-Flow Relationship in Two-Lane Highways

A research has been carried out in two-lanehighways in the Madrid Region to propose an alternativemodel for the speed-flowrelationship using regular loop data. The model is different in shape and, in some cases, slopes with respect to the contents of Highway Capacity Manual (HCM). A model is proposed for a mountainous area road, something for which the HCM does not provide explicitly a solution. The problem of a mountain road with high flows to access a popular recreational area is discussed, and some solutions are proposed. Up to 7 one-way sections of two-lanehighways have been selected, aiming at covering a significant number of different characteristics, to verify the proposed method the different classes of highways on which the Manual classifies them. In order to enunciate the model and to verify the basic variables of these types of roads a high number of data have been used. The counts were collected in the same way that the Madrid Region Highway Agency performs their counts. A total of 1.471 hours have been collected, in periods of 5 minutes. The models have been verified by means of specific statistical test (R2, T-Student, Durbin-Watson, ANOVA, etc.) and with the diagnostics of the contrast of assumptions (normality, linearity, homoscedasticity and independence). The model proposed for this type of highways with base conditions, can explain the different behaviors as traffic volumes increase, and follows a polynomial multiple regression model of order 3, S shaped. As secondary results of this research, the levels of service and the capacities of this road have been measured with the 2000 HCM methodology, and the results discussed. �� 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Metodolog��a para la evaluaci��n de la consistencia del trazado de carreteras interurbanas de dos carriles

La consistencia del trazado puede interpretarse como la relaci��n entre las caracter��sticas geom��tricas de una carretera y lo que espera encontrar el conductor que circula por ella. Si hay una correspondencia entre estos dos aspectos, la conducci��n puede hacerse de modo continuo, sin sobresaltos, lo que incide favorablemente sobre la seguridad en la circulaci��n. Si bien hay una serie de recomendaciones desde el punto de vista geom��trico para obtener trazados consistentes, esto no siempre se logra, y s��lo en los ��ltimos a��os se ha iniciado el estudio de metodolog��as para evaluar ��sto, tanto en v��as existentes como en v��as proyectadas. La mayor parte de estas metodolog��as s��lo considera el trazado en planta, olvid��ndose del trazado en alzado y de la coordinaci��n entre los mismos. En esta Tesis doctoral se ha desarrollado una metodolog��a para evaluar la consistencia del trazado en carreteras interurbanas de dos carriles que considera dichos aspectos. Para ello, se hizo un an��lisis exhaustivo de los ��ndices de trazado, los cuales eval��an las caracter��sticas geom��tricas en planta y en alzado. Los ��ndices se correlacionaron con la accidentalidad, para determinar cu��l de ellos tiene mayor incidencia, encontr��ndose que es el cambio de curvatura vertical (VCCR); a este ��ndice se le estableci�� un rango de calificaci��n. Como elemento de evaluaci��n complementario de an��lisis se seleccion�� el perfil de velocidades de operaci��n, procedimiento que ha sido probado en diferentes investigaciones, y del cual se desarroll�� un modelo aplicado a Colombia. Para la coordinaci��n de trazados en planta y alzado se evaluaron diferentes combinaciones geom��tricas, algunas de las cuales generaron reapariciones del trazado. Se ha definido un nuevo ��ndice (Irt) que permite determinar num��ricamente la posibilidad de que se presente esta situaci��n, indeseable desde el punto de vista de la seguridad vial. La combinaci��n de estos tres elementos permite una evaluaci��n integral de los diferentes aspectos que inciden sobre la consistencia del trazado de una carretera. La metodolog��a desarrollada se aplic�� en el estudio de consistencia del trazado en algunas carreteras espa��olas y colombianas, ubicadas en distintos tipos de terreno. ABSTRACT Geometric Design Consistency can be defined as the relationship between the geometric characteristics of a road and what the driver expects to find when driving. If there is a correspondence between these two aspects, driving is smoother and unexpected events are minimized, which increases traffic safety conditions. Although from the geometric point of view there are several recommendations to ensure consistent designs, this is not always successfully applied. The study of methods to evaluate design consistency in existing and future routes has only begun in recent years. Most existing methods only consider the horizontal alignment of the road and overlook both the vertical alignment and the coordination that must exist between the vertical and the horizontal. The present Doctoral Thesis proposes a method to evaluate the geometric design consistency of a two-lane rural highway which considers all three of these aspects: the horizontal alignment, the vertical alignment and the coordination that must exist between them. In order to achieve this, several different alignment indices, that evaluate horizontal and vertical geometric characteristics, were thoroughly analyzed to determine their correlation with traffic accidents. The Vertical Curvature Change Rate (VCCR) index showed the highest correlation, and rating thresholds for this index have been established. To complement the evaluation, the operating speed profile, was chosen. This procedure has been extensively tested by several researchers. An operating speed prediction model adapted to Colombia was developed. To study the coordination between the horizontal and the vertical alignments of the road, several geometric combinations of the two were used. Some of these combinations generate undesirable losses of visibility. For this reason, a new index (Irt) was defined to numerically detect those cases, which are undesirable from the point of view of traffic safety. The combination of these three factors allows a comprehensive evaluation of the different aspects that affect the geometric design consistency of a highway. The methodology was applied to some Spanish and Colombian roads located in different types of terrain.

Interactions between roughness and topography in hydraulic models

Analysis of river flow using hydraulic modelling and its implications in derived environ-mental applications are inextricably connected with the way in which the river boundary shape is represented. This relationship is scale-dependent upon the modelling resolution which in turn determines the importance of a subscale performance of the model and the way subscale (surface and flow) processes are parameterised. Commonly, the subscale behaviour of the model relies upon a roughness parameterisation whose meaning depends on the dimensionality of the hydraulic model and the resolution of the topographic represen��tation scale. This latter is, in turn, dependent on the resolution of the computational mesh as well as on the detail of measured topographic data. Flow results are affected by this interactions between scale and subscale parameterisation according to the dimensionality approach. The aim of this dissertation is the evaluation of these interactions upon hy��draulic modelling results. Current high resolution topographic source availability induce this research which is tackled using a suitable roughness approach according to each di��mensionality with the purpose of the interaction assessment. A 1D HEC-RAS model, a 2D raster-based diffusion-wave model with a scale-dependent distributed roughness parame-terisation and a 3D finite volume scheme with a porosity algorithm approach to incorporate complex topography have been used. Different topographic sources are assessed using a 1D scheme. LiDAR data are used to isolate the mesh resolution from the topographic content of the DEM effects upon 2D and 3D flow results. A distributed roughness parameterisation, using a roughness height approach dependent upon both mesh resolution and topographic content is developed and evaluated for the 2D scheme. Grain-size data and fractal methods are used for the reconstruction of topography with microscale information, required for some applications but not easily available. Sensitivity of hydraulic parameters to this topographic parameterisation is evaluated in a 3D scheme at different mesh resolu��tions. Finally, the structural variability of simulated flow is analysed and related to scale interactions. Model simulations demonstrate (i) the importance of the topographic source in a 1D models; (ii) the mesh resolution approach is dominant in 2D and 3D simulations whereas in a 1D model the topographic source and even the roughness parameterisation impacts are more critical; (iii) the increment of the sensitivity to roughness parameterisa-tion in 1D and 2D schemes with detailed topographic sources and finer mesh resolutions; and (iv) the topographic content and microtopography impact throughout the vertical profile of computed 3D velocity in a depth-dependent way, whereas 2D results are not affected by topographic content variations. Finally, the spatial analysis shows that the mesh resolution controls high resolution model scale results, roughness parameterisation control 2D simulation results for a constant mesh resolution; and topographic content and micro-topography variations impacts upon the organisation of flow results depth-dependently in a 3D scheme. Resumen La topograf��a juega un papel fundamental en la distribuci��n del agua y la energ��a en los paisajes naturales (Beven and Kirkby 1979; Wood et al. 1997). La simulaci��n hidr��ulica combinada con m��todos de medici��n del terreno por teledetecci��n constituyen una poderosa herramienta de investigaci��n en la comprensi��n del comportamiento de los flujos de agua debido a la variabilidad de la superficie sobre la que fluye. La representaci��n e incorporaci��n de la topograf��a en el esquema hidr��ulico tiene una importancia crucial en los resultados y determinan el desarrollo de sus aplicaciones al campo medioambiental. Cualquier simulaci��n es una simplificaci��n de un proceso del mundo real, y por tanto el grado de simplificaci��n determinar�� el significado de los resultados simulados. Este razonamiento es particularmente dif��cil de trasladar a la simulaci��n hidr��ulica donde aspectos de la escala tan diferentes como la escala de los procesos de flujo y de representaci��n del contorno son considerados conjuntamente incluso en fases de parametrizaci��n (e.g. parametrizaci��n de la rugosidad). Por una parte, esto es debido a que las decisiones de escala vienen condicionadas entre ellas (e.g. la dimensionalidad del modelo condiciona la escala de representaci��n del contorno) y por tanto interaccionan en sus resultados estrechamente. Y por otra parte, debido a los altos requerimientos num��ricos y computacionales de una representaci��n expl��cita de alta resoluci��n de los procesos de flujo y discretizaci��n de la malla. Adem��s, previo a la modelizaci��n hidr��ulica, la superficie del terreno sobre la que el agua fluye debe ser modelizada y por tanto presenta su propia escala de representaci��n, que a su vez depender�� de la escala de los datos topogr��ficos medidos con que se elabora el modelo. En ��ltima instancia, esta topograf��a es la que determina el comportamiento espacial del flujo. Por tanto, la escala de la topograf��a en sus fases de medici��n y modelizaci��n (resoluci��n de los datos y representaci��n topogr��fica) previas a su incorporaci��n en el modelo hidr��ulico producir�� a su vez un impacto que se acumular�� al impacto global resultante debido a la escala computacional del modelo hidr��ulico y su dimensi��n. La comprensi��n de las interacciones entre las complejas geometr��as del contorno y la estructura del flujo utilizando la modelizaci��n hidr��ulica depende de las escalas consideradas en la simplificaci��n de los procesos hidr��ulicos y del terreno (dimensi��n del modelo, tama��o de escala computacional y escala de los datos topogr��ficos). La naturaleza de la aplicaci��n del modelo hidr��ulico (e.g. habitat f��sico, an��lisis de riesgo de inundaciones, transporte de sedimentos) determina en primer lugar la escala del estudio y por tanto el detalle de los procesos a simular en el modelo (i.e. la dimensionalidad) y, en consecuencia, la escala computacional a la que se realizar��n los c��lculos (i.e. resoluci��n computacional). Esta ��ltima a su vez determina, el detalle geogr��fico con que deber�� representarse el contorno acorde con la resoluci��n de la malla computacional. La parametrizaci��n persigue incorporar en el modelo hidr��ulico la cuantificaci��n de los procesos y condiciones f��sicas del sistema natural y por tanto debe incluir no solo aquellos procesos que tienen lugar a la escala de modelizaci��n, sino tambi��n aquellos que tienen lugar a un nivel subescalar y que deben ser definidos mediante relaciones de escalado con las variables modeladas expl��citamente. Dicha parametrizaci��n se implementa en la pr��ctica mediante la provisi��n de datos al modelo, por tanto la escala de los datos geogr��ficos utilizados para parametrizar el modelo no s��lo influir�� en los resultados, sino tambi��n determinar�� la importancia del comportamiento subescalar del modelo y el modo en que estos procesos deban ser parametrizados (e.g. la variabilidad natural del terreno dentro de la celda de discretizaci��n o el flujo en las direcciones laterales y verticales en un modelo unidimensional). En esta tesis, se han utilizado el modelo unidimensional HEC-RAS, (HEC 1998b), un modelo r��ster bidimensional de propagaci��n de onda, (Yu 2005) y un esquema tridimensional de vol��menes finitos con un algoritmo de porosidad para incorporar la topograf��a, (Lane et al. 2004; Hardy et al. 2005). La geometr��a del contorno viene definida por la escala de representaci��n topogr��fica (resoluci��n de malla y contenido topogr��fico), la cual a su vez depende de la escala de la fuente cartogr��fica. Todos estos factores de escala interaccionan en la respuesta del modelo hidr��ulico a la topograf��a. En los ��ltimos a��os, m��todos como el an��lisis fractal y las t��cnicas geoestad��sticas utilizadas para representar y analizar elementos geogr��ficos (e.g. en la caracterizaci��n de superficies (Herzfeld and Overbeck 1999; Butler et al. 2001)), est��n promoviendo nuevos enfoques en la cuantificaci��n de los efectos de escala (Lam et al. 2004; Atkinson and Tate 2000; Lam et al. 2006) por medio del an��lisis de la estructura espacial de la variable (e.g. Bishop et al. 2006; Ju et al. 2005; Myint et al. 2004; Weng 2002; Bian and Xie 2004; Southworth et al. 2006; Pozd-nyakova et al. 2005; Kyriakidis and Goodchild 2006). Estos m��todos cuantifican tanto el rango de valores de la variable presentes a diferentes escalas como la homogeneidad o heterogeneidad de la variable espacialmente distribuida (Lam et al. 2004). En esta tesis, estas t��cnicas se han utilizado para analizar el impacto de la topograf��a sobre la estructura de los resultados hidr��ulicos simulados. Los datos de teledetecci��n de alta resoluci��n y t��cnicas GIS tambi��n est��n siendo utilizados para la mejor compresi��n de los efectos de escala en modelos medioambientales (Marceau 1999; Skidmore 2002; Goodchild 2003) y se utilizan en esta tesis. Esta tesis como corpus de investigaci��n aborda las interacciones de esas escalas en la modelizaci��n hidr��ulica desde un punto de vista global e interrelacionado. Sin embargo, la estructura y el foco principal de los experimentos est��n relacionados con las nociones espaciales de la escala de representaci��n en relaci��n con una visi��n global de las interacciones entre escalas. En teor��a, la representaci��n topogr��fica debe caracterizar la superficie sobre la que corre el agua a una adecuada (conforme a la finalidad y dimensi��n del modelo) escala de discretizaci��n, de modo que refleje los procesos de inter��s. La parametrizaci��n de la rugosidad debe de reflejar los efectos de la variabilidad de la superficie a escalas de m��s detalle que aquellas representadas expl��citamente en la malla topogr��fica (i.e. escala de discretizaci��n). Claramente, ambos conceptos est��n f��sicamente relacionados por un

Vulnerabilidad s��smica en Puerto Pr��ncipe, Hait��. Escala Macros��smica Haitiana.

Hait��, es un pa��s claramente prioritario como receptor de cooperaci��n para el desarrollo. Tras el terremoto del 12 de enero de 2010, se ha desarrollado un Proyecto de Cooperaci��n Interuniversitaria entre la Universidad del Estado de Hait�� y la Universidad Polit��cnica de Madrid, financiado por la Agencia Espa��ola de Cooperaci��n Internacional para el Desarrollo.El proyecto consiste en la formaci��n y capacitaci��n de los t��cnicos Haitianos para reconstruir su pa��s. Se est�� trabajando en la creaci��n de una escala macros��smica Haitiana, partiendo como base de la Escala Macros��smica Europea 1998. En este sentido, se hace un an��lisis exhaustivo de toda la documentaci��n t��cnica y cient��fica existente hasta la fecha sobre tipos de edificios, clases de vulnerabilidad y grados de da��os dependiendo del tipo de edificio. Como caso de estudio se aplica en la ciudad de Puerto Pr��ncipe.En primer lugar se ha clasificado el parque inmobiliario de Puerto Pr��ncipe en diferentes tipolog��as constructivas, tras un trabajo de campo y teniendo en cuenta las gu��as de auto-construcci��n y reparaci��n de edificios publicadas por el Ministerio de Obras P��blicas, Transporte y Comunicaciones de Hait��. (MTPTC).En el estudio de la vulnerabilidad, adem��s del tipo de estructura de los edificios, se tiene en cuenta la habitabilidad b��sica que debe tener todo asentamiento humano, analizando no s��lo el edificio, sino todo el entorno externo de espacios p��blicos, infraestructuras, dotaciones y servicios que, en conjunto,conforman el n��cleo de cada poblaci��n y permiten el funcionamiento eficiente del sistema de asentamientos del territorio habitado; pues, en ��ltima instancia, dicho territorio construido es el que mejor acota los riesgos ante la vulnerabilidad material y m��s garantiza la vida saludable de las personas. Los par��metros estudiados son: urban��sticos (anchos de v��as, dimensiones de manzanas, trazado, infraestructuras,...), geol��gicos (estudios del efecto local e identificaci��n de las fallas activas respecto a la edificaci��n) y topogr��ficos (implantaci��n del edificio en zonas llanas, en laderas...). En ��ltimo lugar, con todos estos datos y los da��os registrados en el terremoto de enero de 2010, se hace una escala de intensidades macros��smica y un plano de ordenaci��n de la vulnerabilidad en Puerto Pr��ncipe, que sirva de base a las autoridades haitianas para la planificaci��n urban��stica y la reconstrucci��n, mitigando de esta manera el riesgo s��mico. SUMMARY Haiti is a clear priority country as a recipient of development cooperation. After the earthquake of January 12, 2010, an Inter-University Cooperation Project has been developed between the State University of Haiti and the Polytechnic University of Madrid, funded by the Spanish Agency for International Development.The project consists of training and qualifying Haitian technicians to rebuild their country. We are currently working on the creation of a Haitian Macroseismic Scale,based on the European Macroseismic Scale 1998.For the accomplishment of this goal, a comprehensive (deep) analysis is being held, going through all the scientific and technical documentation to date, related to building types, kinds of vulnerability and degrees/ levels of damage depending on the type of building. As a case study, this has been applied to the city of Port-au-Prince.First of all, we have classified the housing typology of Port-au-Prince in different construction types, after carrying on field work in this area and keeping in mind the guidelines for self-construction and repairment of buildings published by the Ministry of Work, Transport and Communications of Haiti. (MTPTC).Regarding the study of vulnerability, besides the type of structure of the buildings, we take into account the basic habitability every human settlement should have, analyzing not only the building, but all the external environment of public spaces,infrastructures, amenities and services, which, as a whole, shape the core of each population and allow the efficient functioning of the settlement system on the inhabited territory. It is this territory,ultimately, the one that better narrows the risks when facing material vulnerability and that better ensures a healthy life for people. The studied parameters are: urban (lane width, block dimensions, layout, infrastructure...), geological (studies focusing on local effects and identification of the active faults in relation to the building) and topographical (implementation of the building on flat areas, slopes...)Finally, with all this data (information) and the registered damages related to the earthquake occurred in 2010, we create a Macroseismic Intensity Scale and a Management Plan of the vulnerability in Port-au-Prince. They will serve as a guideline for Haitians authorities in the urban planning and reconstruction, thus reducing seismic risk.

Vision-based active safety system for automatic stopping

ntelligent systems designed to reduce highway fatalities have been widely applied in the automotive sector in the last decade. Of all users of transport systems, pedestrians are the most vulnerable in crashes as they are unprotected. This paper deals with an autonomous intelligent emergency system designed to avoid collisions with pedestrians. The system consists of a fuzzy controller based on the time-to-collision estimate ��� obtained via a vision-based system ��� and the wheel-locking probability ��� obtained via the vehicle���s CAN bus ��� that generates a safe braking action. The system has been tested in a real car ��� a convertible Citro��n C3 Pluriel ��� equipped with an automated electro-hydraulic braking system capable of working in parallel with the vehicle���s original braking circuit. The system is used as a last resort in the case that an unexpected pedestrian is in the lane and all the warnings have failed to produce a response from the driver.

Arquitectura de Control para la Conducci��n Aut��noma de Veh��culos en Entornos Urbanos y Autov��as

Hoy en d��a, el desarrollo tecnol��gico en el campo de los sistemas inteligentes de transporte (ITS por sus siglas en ingl��s) ha permitido dotar a los veh��culos con diversos sistemas de ayuda a la conducci��n (ADAS, del ingl��s advanced driver assistance system), mejorando la experiencia y seguridad de los pasajeros, en especial del conductor. La mayor parte de estos sistemas est��n pensados para advertir al conductor sobre ciertas situaciones de riesgo, como la salida involuntaria del carril o la proximidad de obst��culos en el camino. No obstante, tambi��n podemos encontrar sistemas que van un paso m��s all�� y son capaces de cooperar con el conductor en el control del veh��culo o incluso relegarlos de algunas tareas tediosas. Es en este ��ltimo grupo donde se encuentran los sistemas de control electr��nico de estabilidad (ESP - Electronic Stability Program), el antibloqueo de frenos (ABS - Anti-lock Braking System), el control de crucero (CC - Cruise Control) y los m��s recientes sistemas de aparcamiento asistido. Continuando con esta l��nea de desarrollo, el paso siguiente consiste en la supresi��n del conductor humano, desarrollando sistemas que sean capaces de conducir un veh��culo de forma aut��noma y con un rendimiento superior al del conductor. En este trabajo se presenta, en primer lugar, una arquitectura de control para la automatizaci��n de veh��culos. Esta se compone de distintos componentes de hardware y software, agrupados de acuerdo a su funci��n principal. El dise��o de la arquitectura parte del trabajo previo desarrollado por el Programa AUTOPIA, aunque introduce notables aportaciones en cuanto a la eficiencia, robustez y escalabilidad del sistema. Ahondando un poco m��s en detalle, debemos resaltar el desarrollo de un algoritmo de localizaci��n basado en enjambres de part��culas. Este est�� planteado como un m��todo de filtrado y fusi��n de la informaci��n obtenida a partir de los distintos sensores embarcados en el veh��culo, entre los que encontramos un receptor GPS (Global Positioning System), unidades de medici��n inercial (IMU ��� Inertial Measurement Unit) e informaci��n tomada directamente de los sensores embarcados por el fabricante, como la velocidad de las ruedas y posici��n del volante. Gracias a este m��todo se ha conseguido resolver el problema de la localizaci��n, indispensable para el desarrollo de sistemas de conducci��n aut��noma. Continuando con el trabajo de investigaci��n, se ha estudiado la viabilidad de la aplicaci��n de t��cnicas de aprendizaje y adaptaci��n al dise��o de controladores para el veh��culo. Como punto de partida se emplea el m��todo de Q-learning para la generaci��n de un controlador borroso lateral sin ning��n tipo de conocimiento previo. Posteriormente se presenta un m��todo de ajuste on-line para la adaptaci��n del control longitudinal ante perturbaciones impredecibles del entorno, como lo son los cambios en la inclinaci��n del camino, fricci��n de las ruedas o peso de los ocupantes. Para finalizar, se presentan los resultados obtenidos durante un experimento de conducci��n aut��noma en carreteras reales, el cual se llev�� a cabo en el mes de Junio de 2012 desde la poblaci��n de San Lorenzo de El Escorial hasta las instalaciones del Centro de Autom��tica y Rob��tica (CAR) en Arganda del Rey. El principal objetivo tras esta demostraci��n fue validar el funcionamiento, robustez y capacidad de la arquitectura propuesta para afrontar el problema de la conducci��n aut��noma, bajo condiciones mucho m��s reales a las que se pueden alcanzar en las instalaciones de prueba. ABSTRACT Nowadays, the technological advances in the Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) field have led the development of several driving assistance systems (ADAS). These solutions are designed to improve the experience and security of all the passengers, especially the driver. For most of these systems, the main goal is to warn drivers about unexpected circumstances leading to risk situations such as involuntary lane departure or proximity to other vehicles. However, other ADAS go a step further, being able to cooperate with the driver in the control of the vehicle, or even overriding it on some tasks. Examples of this kind of systems are the anti-lock braking system (ABS), cruise control (CC) and the recently commercialised assisted parking systems. Within this research line, the next step is the development of systems able to replace the human drivers, improving the control and therefore, the safety and reliability of the vehicles. First of all, this dissertation presents a control architecture design for autonomous driving. It is made up of several hardware and software components, grouped according to their main function. The design of this architecture is based on the previous works carried out by the AUTOPIA Program, although notable improvements have been made regarding the efficiency, robustness and scalability of the system. It is also remarkable the work made on the development of a location algorithm for vehicles. The proposal is based on the emulation of the behaviour of biological swarms and its performance is similar to the well-known particle filters. The developed method combines information obtained from different sensors, including GPS, inertial measurement unit (IMU), and data from the original vehicle���s sensors on-board. Through this filtering algorithm the localization problem is properly managed, which is critical for the development of autonomous driving systems. The work deals also with the fuzzy control tuning system, a very time consuming task when done manually. An analysis of learning and adaptation techniques for the development of different controllers has been made. First, the Q-learning ���a reinforcement learning method��� has been applied to the generation of a lateral fuzzy controller from scratch. Subsequently, the development of an adaptation method for longitudinal control is presented. With this proposal, a final cruise control controller is able to deal with unpredictable environment disturbances, such as road slope, wheel���s friction or even occupants��� weight. As a testbed for the system, an autonomous driving experiment on real roads is presented. This experiment was carried out on June 2012, driving from San Lorenzo de El Escorial up to the Center for Automation and Robotics (CAR) facilities in Arganda del Rey. The main goal of the demonstration was validating the performance, robustness and viability of the proposed architecture to deal with the problem of autonomous driving under more demanding conditions than those achieved on closed test tracks.

Desarrollo de T��cnicas Interferom��tricas para Radares de Alta Resoluci��n en Milim��tricas

En esta tesis doctoral se aborda el desarrollo de t��cnicas interferom��tricas para radares de alta resoluci��n en milim��tricas. Espec��ficamente, se centra en el desarrollo de t��cnicas para radares terrestres y en concreto aquellas relacionadas con el seguimiento, clasificaci��n y generaci��n de im��genes de blancos m��viles. Aparte del desarrollo te��rico y simulaci��n de las diferentes t��cnicas, uno de los grandes retos de esta tesis es la verificaci��n experimental de las mismas. Para este prop��sito, se emplear�� un prototipo de sensor radar interferom��trico de muy alta resoluci��n y de ondas milim��tricas. El primer cap��tulo de la tesis realiza una peque��a introducci��n a las t��cnicas interferom��tricas y presenta los objetivos, motivaci��n y organizaci��n del presente trabajo. El segundo cap��tulo hace una peque��a introducci��n a los radares interferom��tricos de alta resoluci��n en milim��tricas y presenta el sensor radar experimental con el que se llevar��n a cabo la validaci��n de las distintas t��cnicas presentadas. El tercer cap��tulo recoge las distintas t��cnicas interferom��tricas desarrolladas para el seguimiento y c��lculo de la altura de blancos m��viles en radares de alta resoluci��n. Entre ellas se encuentran: el seguimiento de blancos m��viles en sucesi��n de im��genes ISAR, el c��lculo de altura de blancos en im��genes radar bidimensionales distancia-tiempo y su equivalente en im��genes distancia-Doppler. El cuarto cap��tulo presenta una aplicaci��n de las t��cnicas interferom��tricas para la vigilancia de tr��fico en carreteras. Se describir��n dos configuraciones radar que permiten calcular la velocidad de todos los blancos iluminados por el radar identificando de manera un��voca a los blancos en funci��n del carril por el que circulen. El quinto cap��tulo presenta t��cnicas interferom��tricas aplicadas a la vigilancia en entornos mar��timos basadas en la generaci��n de im��genes interferom��tricas. Para demostrar la viabilidad del uso de estas im��genes se ha desarrollado un simulador de blancos m��viles extensos realistas. Abstract This Ph. D thesis deals with the development of radar interferometry techniques for high-resolution millimeter wave sensors. It focuses on the development of techniques for ground-based radars and specifically those related to monitoring, classification and imaging of moving targets. Apart from the theoretical development and simulation, another major technical challenge of this thesis is the experimental verification of the different techniques. For that purpuse, a very high resolution interferometric millimeter wave radar sensor is used. The first chapter of the thesis makes a brief introduction to the interferometric techniques and shows the goals, motivation and organization of this work. The second chapter provides a brief introduction to high resolution interferometric radars in millimeter waves and presents the experimental radar sensor which will be used for the validation of the various techniques presented. The third chapter presents the different interferometric techniques developed for monitoring and obtaining the height of moving targets in high resolution radars. Among them are: tracking of moving targets in a succession of ISAR images, targets height calculation using bidimensional range-time radar images and the equivalente technique using range-Doppler images. The fourth chapter presents the application of interferometric techniques for road traffic monitoring. Two radar configurations are described. Both of them are able to obtain the speed for simultaneuslly illuminated targets, and univocally identify each target based on the detected road lane. The fifth chapter presents the application of interferometric techniques to maritime surveillance based on interferometric imaging. To demonstrate the feasibility of the presented techniques a realistic simulator of extended moving targets has been developed.

Energy consumption and intensity of toll highway transport in Spain

We estimate the energy consumption of toll highway transport on a number of Spanish roads. Regression parameters are balanced according to coefficients from an empirical analysis based on survey data by vehicle type. The mean energy consumption and subsequent CO2 emissions on the toll highway sections are estimated as 1895 MJ/h/lane-km and 0.15 tCO2 eq./h/lane-km, values that increase to 2644 and 0.22 when energy and carbon emissions of transport infrastructure are considered based on the life cycle energy consumption for toll highway construction and use. If the energy intensity of infrastructure construction is allocated to the users according to traffic, it is much higher for motorcycles than for cars, and is significantly lower for articulated trucks than for vans.

Las 'calles en el aire'. Paralelismos entre la vida y la arquitectura

En 1952 Alison y Peter Smithson entregaron su propuesta para el concurso de viviendas Golden Lane, caracterizado por su dise��o de calles peatonales elevadas concebidas como elementos que propiciaran la identificaci��n y sentido de comunidad de sus habitantes. Este proyecto represent�� una inflexi��n respecto a sus proyectos anteriores y coincidi�� con el comienzo de su visi��n cr��tica respecto a los postulados funcionalistas de los CIAM precedentes. Con las 'calles en el aire' los Smithson concretaron el primer ejemplo de su propuesta de reorientaci��n del pensamiento urbano mediante una re-identificaci��n que expresaba la actualizaci��n de las relaciones entre vida y arquitectura.

Sight distance for traffic safety analysis using GIS

Sight distance is of major importance for road safety either when designing new roads or analysing the alignment of existing roads. It is essential that available sight distance in roads is long enough for emergency stops or overtaking manoeuvres. Also, it is vital for engineers/researchers that the tools used for that analysis are both powerful and intuitive. Based on ArcGIS, the application to be presented not only performs an exhaustive sight distance calculation, but allows an accurate analysis of 3D alignment, using all new tools, from a Digital Elevation Model and vehicle trajectory. The software has been successfully utilised to analyse several two-lane rural roads in Spain. In addition, the software produces thematic maps representing sight distance in which supplementary information about crashes, traffic flow, speed or design consistency could be included, allowing traffic safety studies.

Dise��o de un modelo para la identificaci��n y an��lisis de tramos de carreteras sin accidentes : una nueva visi��n de la seguridad vial

El planteamiento tradicional de an��lisis de la accidentalidad en carretera pasa por la consideraci��n de herramientas paliativas, como son la identificaci��n y gesti��n de los puntos negros o tramos de concentraci��n de accidentes, o preventivas, como las auditor��as e inspecciones de seguridad vial. En esta tesis doctoral se presenta un planteamiento complementario a estas herramientas, desde una perspectiva novedosa: la consideraci��n de los tramos donde no se producen accidentes; son los denominados Tramos Blancos. La tesis persigue demostrar que existen determinados par��metros del dise��o de las carreteras y del tr��fico que, bajo caracter��sticas generales similares de las v��as, tienen influencia en el hecho de que se produzcan o no accidentes, adicionalmente a la exposici��n al riesgo, como factor principal, y a otros factores. La propia definici��n de los Tramos Blancos, entendidos como tramos de carreteras de longitud representativa donde no se han producido accidentes con v��ctimas mortales o heridos graves durante un periodo largo de tiempo, garantiza que esta situaci��n no se produzca como consecuencia de la aleatoriedad de los accidentes, sino que pudiera deberse a una confluencia espec��fica de determinados par��metros de la geometr��a de la v��a y del tr��fico total y de veh��culos pesados. Para el desarrollo de esta investigaci��n se han considerado la red de autopistas de peaje y las carreteras convencionales de la Red del Estado de Espa��a, que supone un total de 17.000 kil��metros, y los datos de accidentes con v��ctimas mortales y heridos graves en el periodo 2006-2010, ambos incluidos, en estas redes (un total de 10.000 accidentes). La red viaria objeto de an��lisis supone el 65% de la longitud de la Red de Carreteras del Estado, por la que circula el 33% de su tr��fico; en ella se produjeron en el a��o 2013 el 47% de los accidentes con v��ctimas y el 60% de las v��ctimas mortales de la Red de Carreteras del Estado. Durante la investigaci��n se ha desarrollado una base de datos de 250.130 registros y m��s de 3.5 millones de datos en el caso de las autopistas de peaje de la Red de Carreteras del Estado y de 935.402 registros y m��s de 14 millones de datos en el caso de la red convencional del Estado analizada. Tanto las autopistas de peaje como las carreteras convencionales han sido clasificadas seg��n sus caracter��sticas de tr��fico, de manera que se valoren v��as con nivel de exposici��n al riesgo similar. Para cada tipolog��a de v��a, se ha definido como longitud de referencia para que un tramo se considere Tramo Blanco la longitud igual al percentil 95 de las longitudes de tramos sin accidentes con heridos graves o v��ctimas mortales durante el periodo 2006-2010. En el caso de las autopistas de peaje, en la tipolog��a que ha sido considerada para la definici��n del modelo, esta longitud de referencia se estableci�� en 14.5 kil��metros, mientras que en el caso de las carreteras convencionales, se estableci�� en 7.75 kil��metros. Para cada uno de los tipos de v��a considerados se han construido una base de datos en la que se han incluido las variables de existencia o no de Tramo Blanco, as�� como las variables de tr��fico (intensidad media diaria total, intensidad de veh��culos pesados y porcentaje de veh��culos pesados ), la velocidad media y las variables de geometr��a (n��mero de carriles, ancho de carril, ancho de arc��n derecho e izquierdo, ancho de calzada y plataforma, radio, peralte, pendiente y visibilidad directa e inversa en los casos disponibles); como variables adicionales, se han incluido el n��mero de accidentes con v��ctimas, los fallecidos y heridos graves, ��ndices de peligrosidad, ��ndices de mortalidad y exposici��n al riesgo. Los trabajos desarrollados para explicar la presencia de Tramos Blancos en la red de autopistas de peaje han permitido establecer las diferencias entre los valores medios de las variables de tr��fico y dise��o geom��trico en Tramos Blancos respecto a tramos no blancos y comprobar que estas diferencias son significativas. As�� mismo, se ha podido calibrar un modelo de regresi��n log��stica que explica parcialmente la existencia de Tramos Blancos, para rangos de tr��fico inferiores a 10.000 veh��culos diarios y para tr��ficos entre 10.000 y 15.000 veh��culos diarios. Para el primer grupo (menos de 10.000 veh��culos al d��a), las variables que han demostrado tener una mayor influencia en la existencia de Tramo Blanco son la velocidad media de circulaci��n, el ancho de carril, el ancho de arc��n izquierdo y el porcentaje de veh��culos pesados. Para el segundo grupo (entre 10.000 y 15.000 veh��culos al d��a), las variables independientes m��s influyentes en la existencia de Tramo Blanco han sido la velocidad de circulaci��n, el ancho de calzada y el porcentaje de veh��culos pesados. En el caso de las carreteras convencionales, los diferentes an��lisis realizados no han permitido identificar un modelo que consiga una buena clasificaci��n de los Tramos Blancos. Aun as��, se puede afirmar que los valores medios de las variables de intensidad de tr��fico, radio, visibilidad, peralte y pendiente presentan diferencias significativas en los Tramos Blancos respecto a los no blancos, que var��an en funci��n de la intensidad de tr��fico. Los resultados obtenidos deben considerarse como la conclusi��n de un an��lisis preliminar, dado que existen otros par��metros, tanto de dise��o de la v��a como de la circulaci��n, el entorno, el factor humano o el veh��culo que podr��an tener una influencia en el hecho que se analiza, y no se han considerado por no disponer de esta informaci��n. En esta misma l��nea, el an��lisis de las circunstancias que rodean al viaje que el usuario de la v��a realiza, su tipolog��a y motivaci��n es una fuente de informaci��n de inter��s de la que no se tienen datos y que permitir��a mejorar el an��lisis de accidentalidad en general, y en particular el de esta investigaci��n. Adicionalmente, se reconocen limitaciones en el desarrollo de esta investigaci��n, en las que ser��a preciso profundizar en el futuro, reconociendo as�� nuevas l��neas de investigaci��n de inter��s. The traditional approach to road accidents analysis has been based in the use of palliative tools, such as black spot (or road sections) identification and management, or preventive tools, such as road safety audits and inspections. This thesis shows a complementary approach to the existing tools, from a new perspective: the consideration of road sections where no accidents have occurred; these are the so-called White Road Sections. The aim of this thesis is to show that there are certain design parameters and traffic characteristics which, under similar circumstances for roads, have influence in the fact that accidents occur, in addition to the main factor, which is the risk exposure, and others. White Road Sections, defined as road sections of a representative length, where no fatal accidents or accidents involving serious injured have happened during a long period of time, should not be a product of randomness of accidents; on the contrary, they might be the consequence of a confluence of specific parameters of road geometry, traffic volumes and heavy vehicles traffic volumes. For this research, the toll motorway network and single-carriageway network of the Spanish National Road Network have been considered, which is a total of 17.000 kilometers; fatal accidents and those involving serious injured from the period 2006-2010 have been considered (a total number of 10.000 accidents). The road network covered means 65% of the total length of the National Road Network, which allocates 33% of traffic volume; 47% of accidents with victims and 60% of fatalities happened in these road networks during 2013. During the research, a database of 250.130 registers and more than 3.5 million data for toll motorways and 935.042 registers and more than 14 million data for single carriageways of the National Road Network was developed. Both toll motorways and single-carriageways have been classified according to their traffic characteristics, so that the analysis is performed over roads with similar risk exposure. For each road type, a reference length for White Road Section has been defined, as the 95 percentile of all road sections lengths without accidents (with fatalities or serious injured) for 2006-2010. For toll motorways, this reference length concluded to be 14.5 kilometers, while for single-carriageways, it was defined as 7.75 kilometers. A detailed database was developed for each type of road, including the variable ���existence of White Road Section���, as well as variables of traffic (average daily traffic volume, heavy vehicles average daily traffic and percentage of heavy vehicles from the total traffic volume), average speed and geometry variables (number of lanes, width of lane, width of shoulders, carriageway width, platform width, radius, superelevation, slope and visibility); additional variables, such as number of accidents with victims, number of fatalities or serious injured, risk and fatality rates and risk exposure, have also been included. Research conducted for the explanation of the presence of White Road Sections in the toll motorway network have shown statistically significant differences in the average values of variables of traffic and geometric design in White Road Sections compared with other road sections. In addition, a binary logistic model for the partial explanation of the presence of White Road Sections was developed, for traffic volumes lower than 10.000 daily vehicles and for those running from 10.000 to 15.000 daily vehicles. For the first group, the most influent variables for the presence of White Road Sections were the average speed, width of lane, width of left shoulder and percentage of heavy vehicles. For the second group, the most influent variables were found to be average speed, carriageway width and percentage of heavy vehicles. For single-carriageways, the different analysis developed did not reach a proper model for the explanation of White Road Sections. However, it can be assumed that the average values of the variables of traffic volume, radius, visibility, superelevation and slope show significant differences in White Road Sections if compared with others, which also vary with traffic volumes. Results obtained should be considered as a conclusion of a preliminary analysis, as there are other parameters, not only design-related, but also regarding traffic, environment, human factor and vehicle which could have an influence in the fact under research, but this information has not been considered in the analysis, as it was not available. In parallel, the analysis of the circumstances around the trip, including its typology and motivation is an interesting source of information, from which data are not available; the availability of this information would be useful for the improvement of accident analysis, in general, and for this research work, in particular. In addition, there are some limitations in the development of the research work; it would be necessary to develop an in-depth analysis in the future, thus assuming new research lines of interest.