Chinese energy and climate policies after Durban: save the Kyoto Protocol

Nowadays, one of the urgent issues regarding global climate change is to discuss the future of the second period of the Kyoto Protocol. However, the divergence of views and opinions among parties in the last Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, held in Durban in December 2011, is still large. One of the bones of contention is whether the emerging developing countries, like China, should make commitments and legally bind themselves to a Green House Gas (GHG) reduction target in near future. As the largest GHG emitting country, China and its energy and climate policies will play an important role in global climate change and will also significantly influence the other countries? policies and the global climate negotiation. In this paper, we review the current differences among parties in the Durban Conference, and we analyze the recent situation, barriers, and future policies in China. Finally we highlight the impact and potential effect of Clean Development Mechanisms in avoiding China?s barriers regarding climate change. Results show that China is making a great effort to mitigate climate change by establishing and reforming its energy and climate policies in order to achieve a low-carbon development. At the same time, more innovation and international collaboration is needed in China to achieve this goal.

Clean Coal Technologies Scenario and Evaluation of Present CO2 Dwindling Initiatives to Approach Zero Emission Power Stations By Coal Combustion. Deployment Situation and Evaluation Study

In the present uncertain global context of reaching an equal social stability and steady thriving economy, power demand expected to grow and global electricity generation could nearly double from 2005 to 2030. Fossil fuels will remain a significant contribution on this energy mix up to 2050, with an expected part of around 70% of global and ca. 60% of European electricity generation. Coal will remain a key player. Hence, a direct effect on the considered CO2 emissions business-as-usual scenario is expected, forecasting three times the present CO2 concentration values up to 1,200ppm by the end of this century. Kyoto protocol was the first approach to take global responsibility onto CO2 emissions monitoring and cap targets by 2012 with reference to 1990. Some of principal CO2emitters did not ratify the reduction targets. Although USA and China spur are taking its own actions and parallel reduction measures. More efficient combustion processes comprising less fuel consuming, a significant contribution from the electricity generation sector to a CO2 dwindling concentration levels, might not be sufficient. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies have started to gain more importance from the beginning of the decade, with research and funds coming out to drive its come in useful. After first researching projects and initial scale testing, three principal capture processes came out available today with first figures showing up to 90% CO2 removal by its standard applications in coal fired power stations. Regarding last part of CO2 reduction chain, two options could be considered worthy, reusing (EOR & EGR) and storage. The study evaluates the state of the CO2 capture technology development, availability and investment cost of the different technologies, with few operation cost analysis possible at the time. Main findings and the abatement potential for coal applications are presented. DOE, NETL, MIT, European universities and research institutions, key technology enterprises and utilities, and key technology suppliers are the main sources of this study. A vision of the technology deployment is presented.

A methodology for territorial distribution of CO2 emission reductions in transport sector

Greenhouse gas emission reduction is the pillar of the Kyoto Protocol and one of the main goals of the European Union (UE) energy policy. National reduction targets for EU member states and an overall target for the EU-15 (8%) were set by the Kyoto Protocol. This reduction target is based on emissions in the reference year (1990) and must be reached by 2012. EU energy policy does not set any national targets, only an overall reduction target of 20% by 2020. This paper transfers global greenhouse gas emission reduction targets in both these documents to the transport sector and specifically to CO2 emissions. It proposes a nonlinear distribution method with objective, dynamic targets for reducing CO2 emissions in the transport sector, according to the context and characteristics of each geographical area. First, we analyse CO2 emissions from transport in the reference year (1990) and their evolution from 1990 to 2007. We then propose a nonlinear methodology for distributing dynamic CO2 emission reduction targets. We have applied the proposed distribution function for 2012 and 2020 at two territorial levels (EU member states and Spanish autonomous regions). The weighted distribution is based on per capita CO2 emissions and CO2 emissions per gross domestic product. Finally, we show the weighted targets found for each EU member state and each Spanish autonomous region, compare them with the real achievements to date, and forecast the situation for the years the Kyoto and EU goals are to be met. The results underline the need for ?weighted? decentralised decisions to be made at different territorial levels with a view to achieving a common goal, so relative convergence of all the geographical areas is reached over time. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The human side of social technology for climate change mitigation and human development: the case of "efficient stoves" in Brazil

Carbon management has gradually gained attention within the overall environmental management and corporate social responsibility agendas. The clean development mechanism, from Kyoto Protocol, was envisioned as connecting carbon market and sustainable development objectives in developing countries. Previous research has shown that this potential is rarely being achieved. The paper explores how the incorporation of the human side into carbon management reinforces its contribution to generate human development in local communities and to improve the company's image. A case study of a Brazilian company is presented, with the results of the application of an analytical model that incorporates the human side and human development. The selected project is an "efficient stoves" programme. "Efficient stoves" are recognised in Brazil as social technologies. Results suggest that the fact that social technologies value the human side of the technology plays a key role when it comes to analysing the co-benefits of the project implementation.

Kinetics of CO2 absorption into aqueous solutions in CO2

This research has been performed to emphasize about the problem known as ?climate changes? occurring due to the greenhouse gases emissions (Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4),Nitrogen oxides (NOx), Ozone (O3), Chlorofluorocarbons (artificial). Specially, the project will be focused on the CO2 emissions produced mainly from the fossil fuels burning in power plants and other kind of industrial processes. To understand how important the global is warming and therefore the climate change, both the increase of emissions and the evolution of those will be studied in this project drawing conclusions about its effect. The Kyoto Protocol, the most important agreement internationally, signed by a great majority of the industrialized and developed countries, which try to limit the CO2 emissions to the atmosphere, will be cited in this project. Taking into account the effects of global warming and applying the international legislation on emissions of greenhouse gases, a number of measures will be exposed, where the CO2 capture will be studied deeply. Three different kind of CO2 capture technologies will be studied, drawing the conclusion that the post-combustion capture, in particular by amine chemical absorption, is the most efficient one.

Development of mathematical models to elaborate strategies, select alternatives and development of plans for adaptation of communities to climate change in different geographical areas including costs to implement it.

There is evidence that the climate changes and that now, the change is influenced and accelerated by the CO2 augmentation in atmosphere due to combustion by humans. Such ?Climate change? is on the policy agenda at the global level, with the aim of understanding and reducing its causes and to mitigate its consequences. In most countries and international organisms UNO (e.g. Rio de Janeiro 1992), OECD, EC, etc . . . the efforts and debates have been directed to know the possible causes, to predict the future evolution of some variable conditioners, and trying to make studies to fight against the effects or to delay the negative evolution of such. The Protocol of Kyoto 1997 set international efforts about CO2 emissions, but it was partial and not followed e.g. by USA and China . . . , and in Durban 2011 the ineffectiveness of humanity on such global real challenges was set as evident. Among all that, the elaboration of a global model was not boarded that can help to choose the best alternative between the feasible ones, to elaborate the strategies and to evaluate the costs, and the authors propose to enter in that frame for study. As in all natural, technological and social changes, the best-prepared countries will have the best bear and the more rapid recover. In all the geographic areas the alternative will not be the same one, but the model must help us to make the appropriated decision. It is essential to know those areas that are more sensitive to the negative effects of climate change, the parameters to take into account for its evaluation, and comprehensive plans to deal with it. The objective of this paper is to elaborate a mathematical model support of decisions, which will allow to develop and to evaluate alternatives of adaptation to the climatic change of different communities in Europe and Latin-America, mainly in especially vulnerable areas to the climatic change, considering in them all the intervening factors. The models will consider criteria of physical type (meteorological, edaphic, water resources), of use of the ground (agriculturist, forest, mining, industrial, urban, tourist, cattle dealer), economic (income, costs, benefits, infrastructures), social (population), politician (implementation, legislation), educative (Educational programs, diffusion) and environmental, at the present moment and the future. The intention is to obtain tools for aiding to get a realistic position for these challenges, which are an important part of the future problems of humanity in next decades.

Parque eólico Cassino

La energía eólica, así como otras energías renovables, ha experimentado en la última década un gran auge que va extendiéndose alrededor de todo el mundo, cada vez más concienciado de la importancia de las energías renovables como una fuente alternativa de energía. Se han sumado al reto todos los países acogidos al Protocolo de Kyoto, que a fin de reducir emisiones están potenciando la energía eólica como la fuente de energía renovable hoy día más viable para la generación eléctrica. Brasil alcanzó en 2011 los 1.509 MW instalados, lo que representa el 50% de Latinoamérica, seguido por México con el 31%. Las características del sector eléctrico así como un marco legal favorable y el alto potencial eólico, hacen que la perspectiva de crecimiento en este tipo de energía sea muy favorable durante los próximos años, con estimaciones de unos 20.000 MW para 2020. El asentamiento del sector en el país de algunos de los fabricantes más importantes y los avances en cuanto a eficiencia de los aerogeneradores, mayor aprovechamiento de la energía de los vientos menos intensos, amplía las posibles ubicaciones de parques eólicos permitiendo una expansión grande del sector. El parque eólico objeto del proyecto está ubicado en el estado de Rio Grande do Sul, al sur del país, y está constituido por 33 aerogeneradores de 2,0 MW de potencia unitaria, lo que supone una potencia total instalada de 66 MW. La energía eléctrica generada en él será de 272,8 GWh/año. Esta energía se venderá mediante un contrato de compraventa de energía (PPA, Power Purchase Agreement) adjudicado por el gobierno Brasileño en sus sistemas de subasta de energía. En el proyecto se aborda primeramente la selección del emplazamiento del parque eólico a partir de datos de viento de la zona. Estos datos son estudiados para evaluar el potencial eólico y así poder optimizar la ubicación de las turbinas eólicas. Posteriormente se evalúan varios tipos de aerogeneradores para su implantación en el emplazamiento. La elección se realiza teniendo en cuenta las características técnicas de las máquinas y mediante un estudio de la productividad del parque con el aerogenerador correspondiente. Finalmente se opta por el aerogenerador G97-2.0 de GAMESA. La ejecución técnica del parque eólico se realiza de forma que se minimicen los impactos ambientales y de acuerdo a lo establecido en el Estudio de Impacto Ambiental realizado. Este proyecto requiere una inversión de 75,4 M€, financiada externamente en un 80 % y el 20 % con recursos propios del promotor. Del estudio económico-financiero se deduce que el proyecto diseñado es rentable económicamente y viable, tanto desde el punto de vista técnico como financiero. Abstract Wind energy, as well as other renewable energies, has experienced over the last decade a boom that is spreading around the world increasingly aware of the importance of renewable energy as an alternative energy source. All countries that ratified the Kyoto Protocol have joined the challenge promoting wind energy in order to reduce emissions as the more feasible renewable energy for power generation. In 2011 Brazil reached 1509 MW installed, 50% of Latin America, followed by Mexico with 31%. Electric sector characteristics as well as a favorable legal framework and the high wind potential, make the perspective of growth in this kind of energy very positive in the coming years, with estimates of about 20,000 MW by 2020. Some leading manufacturers have settled in the country and improvements in wind turbines efficiency with less intense winds, make higher the number of possible locations for wind farms allowing a major expansion of the sector. The planned wind farm is located in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in the south of the Brazil, and is made up of 33 wind turbines of 2,0 MW each, representing a total capacity of 66 MW. The electricity generated, 272,8 GWh/year will be sold through a power purchase agreement (PPA) awarded by the Brazilian government in its energy auction systems. The project deals with the site selection of the wind farm from wind data in the area. These data are studied to evaluate the wind potential and thus optimize the location of wind turbines. Then several types of turbines are evaluated for implementation at the site. The choice is made taking into account the technical characteristics of the machines and a study of the productivity of the park with the corresponding turbine. Finally selected wind turbine is Gamesa G97-2.0. The technical implementation of the wind farm is done to minimize environmental impacts as established in the Environmental Impact Study. This project requires an investment of 75,4 M€, financed externally by 80% and 20% with equity from the promoter. The economic-financial study shows that the project is economically viable, both technically and financially.

Lifetime maximization for beamforming applications in wireless sensor networks

Energy efficiency is a major design issue in the context of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN). If data is to be sent to a far-away base station, collaborative beamforming by the sensors may help to dis- tribute the load among the nodes and reduce fast battery depletion. However, collaborative beamforming techniques are far from opti- mality and in many cases may be wasting more power than required. In this contribution we consider the issue of energy efficiency in beamforming applications. Using a convex optimization framework, we propose the design of a virtual beamformer that maximizes the network's lifetime while satisfying a pre-specified Quality of Service (QoS) requirement. A distributed consensus-based algorithm for the computation of the optimal beamformer is also provided

Location-aided distributed primary user identification in a cognitive radio scenario

We address a cognitive radio scenario, where a number of secondary users performs identification of which primary user, if any, is trans- mitting, in a distributed way and using limited location information. We propose two fully distributed algorithms: the first is a direct iden- tification scheme, and in the other a distributed sub-optimal detection based on a simplified Neyman-Pearson energy detector precedes the identification scheme. Both algorithms are studied analytically in a realistic transmission scenario, and the advantage obtained by detec- tion pre-processing is also verified via simulation. Finally, we give details of their fully distributed implementation via consensus aver- aging algorithms.

Design of universal multicoset sampling patterns for compressed sensing of multiband sparse signals

Many problems in digital communications involve wideband radio signals. As the most recent example, the impressive advances in Cognitive Radio systems make even more necessary the development of sampling schemes for wideband radio signals with spectral holes. This is equivalent to considering a sparse multiband signal in the framework of Compressive Sampling theory. Starting from previous results on multicoset sampling and recent advances in compressive sampling, we analyze the matrix involved in the corresponding reconstruction equation and define a new method for the design of universal multicoset codes, that is, codes guaranteeing perfect reconstruction of the sparse multiband signal.

Caracterización geoquímica orgánica de los materiales de la zona de Hontomín para almacenamiento de Co2

Ante la perspectiva del Cambio Global propiciado por la acción antrópica debido al vertido de CO2 a la atmósfera desde el inicio de la Era Industrial, el Protocolo de Kyoto (firmado en 1997), seguido de las tímidas propuestas derivadas de la Reunión de Copenhague, más acciones derivadas de la reunión de los ministros de medio ambiente en Sevilla, la acción de captura y secuestro del CO2inevitablemente generado por la industria pesada y la generación de energía ha ido adquiriendo un progresivo interés al estar la Península Ibérica constituida en más del 50% de su superficie por rocas sedimentarias susceptibles de constituir almacenamientos subterráneos. El objetivo fundamental de este proyecto fin de carrara, es determinar los cambios que se producen en los compuestos orgánicos de las posibles rocas almacén y sello de la zona de Páramos de la Lora en Burgos, (donde se pretende realizar el secuestro de CO2) después de la inyección de CO2 supercrítico en experimentos. Fundamentalmente, el estudio se centra en la familia de alcanos, cetonas y ácidos. Para ello se realizará una caracterización geoquímica orgánica de los materiales antes y después de haber inyectado CO2 a altas presiones (100 bar – 120 bar) y en las condiciones térmicas existentes a la profundidad del almacén (40º C - 50º C) durante períodos de tiempo variables, para lo que se empleará cámara hiperbárica del Grupo de Estudios Ambientales. Abstract In view Global Change led by the anthropic action due to the discharge of CO2 into the atmosphere since the start of the Indistrual Era, the Protocolo de Kyoto (signed in 1997), followed by the timid proposals arising from the Copenhague Meeting, more action arising of the meeting of the environment minister in Sevilla, the action of captura and sequestration of CO2 inevitably generated by heavy industry and the energy generation has acquired a progressive interest because de Península Ibérica is formed in more than fifty percent of the surface by sedimentary rock susceptible of provide underground storage. The objetive of this Project is determining the changes produced in organics compounds of potential reservoir rocks and seal rocks in Páramos de la Lora in Burgos, after injection supercritical CO2 in experiment. Fundamentally, the study focuses in the alcanos, cetonas and ácidos family. For this, a geochemical characterizacion will be performed in the materials before and after injection of high pressure CO2 (100bar-120bar) and in the existing termal conditions in the depth of the warehouse (40º C-50º C) for varying period of time, for what is used hyperbaric chamber environmental studies group.

Thermal response model of free-running buildings = Model toplotnega odziva netermostatiranih stabv

Reducing energy consumption and eliminating wastage are among the main goals of the European Union (EU) [2]. In order to satisfy all challenges arising from the Kyoto protocol, improving energy efficiency is a very important factor to take into account. There is significant potential for reducing consumption with cost-effective measures. Some studies show that 40% of our energy is consumed in buildings, and the EU has introduced legislation that aims to ensure that less energy is consumed in this way in the future.

Escenario de potenciales tecnologías limpias de carbón y evaluación de las iniciativas dereducción de CO2 en su aproximación a centrales de generación eléctrica de emisiones cero

Dentro del objetivo común que persigue alcanzar una estabilidad social y una economía de éxito sostenible en el actual e incierto contexto mundial, el pronóstico es que la demanda de energía siga aumentando y que la generación mundial de electricidad se duplique entre los años 2005 y 2030. En este escenario, los combustibles fósiles podrían mantener una contribución muy significativa al mix energético posiblemente hasta el año 2050, participando del mercado de generación de energía eléctrica mundial en aproximadamente un 70% y siendo base de la generación de energía eléctrica europea en un 60%. El carbón sin duda seguirá teniendo una contribución clave. Este incremento en la demanda energética y energía eléctrica, en el consumo de carbón y de combustibles fósiles en general, sin duda tendrá impacto sobre los niveles de concentración de CO2 a nivel global en los diferentes escenarios evaluados, con un fatal pronóstico de triplicar, si no se contiene de alguna manera su emisión, los niveles actuales de concentración de CO2 hasta valores próximos a 1.200 ppm para finales de este siglo XXI. El Protocolo de Kyoto, adoptado en 1997, fue el primer tratado de responsabilidad a nivel mundial para el monitoreo y limitación de las emisiones de CO2, realizando una primera aproximación hasta el año 2012 y tomando como valores de referencia los referidos a los niveles de concentración de gases de efecto invernadero registrados en 1990. Algunos de los principales países emisores de CO2 como USA y China no ratificaron los objetivos de límite de emisión y niveles de reducción de CO2, y sin embargo están tomando sus propias acciones y medidas en paralelo para reducir sus emisiones. Los procesos de combustión más eficientes y con menor consumo de combustible, proporcionan una significativa contribución del sector de generación eléctrica a la reducción de los niveles de concentración de CO2, pero podría no ser suficiente. Tecnologías de captura y almacenamiento de carbono (CCS, del inglés Carbon Capture and Storage) han comenzado a ganar más importancia desde principios de esta década, se ha intensificado la investigación y proliferado la creación de fondos que impulsen su desarrollo y estimulen su despliegue. Tras los primeros proyectos de investigación básica y ensayos a pequeña escala, casi embrionaria, tres procesos de captura se posicionan como los más viables actualmente, con potencial para alcanzar niveles de reducción de CO2 del 90%, mediante su aplicación en centrales de carbón para generación eléctrica. En referencia al último paso del esquema CCS en el proceso de reducción de las ingentes cantidades de CO2 que habría que eliminar de la atmósfera, dos opciones deberían ser consideradas: la reutilización (EOR y EGR) y el almacenamiento. El presente artículo evalúa el estado de las diferentes tecnologías de captura de CO2, su disponibilidad, su desarrollo y su coste de instalación estimado. Se incorpora un pequeño análisis de los costes de operación y varias extrapolaciones, dado que solo están disponibles algunos de estos datos hasta la fecha. Además este artículo muestra los principales hallazgos y los potenciales de reducción de emisiones de CO2 en la utilización del carbón para generar electricidad y proporciona una visión del desarrollo y despliegue actual de la tecnología. Se realiza una revisión de las iniciativas existentes a nivel mundial mediante proyectos de demostración orientados a la viabilidad comercial del esquema CCS para el período 2020 ? 2030. Se evalúan los diferentes programas en curso y sus avances, como el programa de UK, el EEPR (European Energy Program for Recovery), etc. Las principales fuentes empleadas en la elaboración de este artículo son el DOE, NETL, MIT, EPRI, Centros e Institutos de Investigación, Universidades Europeas, Administraciones Públicas y Agencias Internacionales, suministradores de tecnología crítica, compañías eléctricas (utilities) y empresas tecnológicas.

Estudio microestructural y de los procesos de hidratación de cementos con adiciones

En los últimos años, las sociedades industrializadas han tomado una mayor conciencia sobre el problema que suponen las emisiones indiscriminadas de gases de efecto invernadero a la atmósfera. El hormigón, cuyo principal componente es el cemento, es probablemente el material más utilizado en construcción. En la actualidad, las emisiones globales de CO2 debidas a la combustión del CaCO3 del cemento Pórtland representan entre el 5% y el 10% respecto del total. Estos valores son de gran interés si se considera que el compromiso aceptado al firmar el Protocolo de Kioto es de una reducción del 5% antes del año 2020, sobre el total de gases producidos. El principal objetivo del presente trabajo es el estudio microestructural y de los procesos de hidratación de los cementos con adiciones. Para ello se propone contribuir a la investigación sobre nuevos productos cementicios basados en micropartículas esféricas vítreas que pueden adicionarse al cemento antes del proceso de amasado. Los resultados obtenidos se han contrastado con las adiciones convencionales de más uso en la actualidad. El nuevo material basa su composición en la química del aluminio y el silicio. Al disminuir la cantidad de CaCO3, se contribuye al desarrollo sostenible y a la reducción de emisiones de CO2. La patente creada por el Grupo Cementos Pórtland Valderrivas (GCPV), describe el proceso de producción de las cemesferas (WO 2009/007470, 2010). Los productos que forman la materia prima para la elaboración de las cemesferas son arcillas, calizas, margas o productos o subproductos industriales, que tras su molienda, son fundidos mediante un fluido gaseoso a elevada temperatura (entre 1250ºC y 1600ºC). Este proceso permite obtener un producto final en forma esférica maciza o microesfera, que tras estabilizarse mediante un enfriamiento rápido, consigue una alta vitrificación idónea para su reactividad química, con una mínima superficie específica en relación a su masa. El producto final obtenido presenta prácticamente la finura requerida y no precisa ser molido, lo que reduce las emisiones de CO2 por el ahorro de combustible durante el proceso de molienda. El proceso descrito permite obtener un amplio abanico de materiales cementantes que, no solo pueden dar respuesta a los problemas generados por las emisiones de CO2, sino también a la disponibilidad de materiales en países donde hasta el momento no se puede fabricar cemento debido a la falta de calizas. Complementariamente se ha optimizado el método de cálculo del grado de hidratación a partir de los resultados del ensayo de ATD-TG en base a los modelos de cálculo de Bhatty y Pane. El método propuesto permite interpretar el comportamiento futuro del material a partir de la interpolación numérica de la cantidad de agua químicamente enlazada. La evolución del grado de hidratación tiene una relación directa con el desarrollo de la resistencia mecánica del material. Con el fin de caracterizar los materiales de base cemento, se ha llevado a cabo una amplia campaña experimental en pasta de cemento, mortero y hormigón. La investigación abarca tres niveles: caracterización microestructural, macroestructural y caracterización del comportamiento a largo plazo, fundamentalmente durabilidad. En total se han evaluado ocho adiciones diferentes: cuatro adiciones convencionales y cuatro tipos de cemesferas con diferente composición química. Los ensayos a escala microscópica comprenden la caracterización química, granulométrica y de la superficie específica BET de los materiales anhidros, análisis térmico diferencial y termogravimétrico en pasta de cemento y mortero, resonancia magnética de silicio en pasta de cemento, difracción de rayos X de los materiales anhidros y de las probetas de pasta, microscopía electrónica de barrido con analizador de energía dispersiva por rayos X en pasta y mortero, y porosimetría por intrusión de mercurio en mortero. La caracterización macroscópica del material comprende ensayos de determinación del agua de consistencia normal y de los tiempos de inicio y fin de fraguado en pasta de cemento, ensayos de resistencia mecánica a flexión y compresión en probetas prismáticas de mortero, y ensayos de resistencia a compresión en probetas de hormigón. Para caracterizar la durabilidad se han desarrollado ensayos de determinación del coeficiente de migración de cloruros y ensayos de resistividad eléctrica en probetas de mortero. Todos los ensayos enumerados permiten clarificar el comportamiento de las cemesferas y compararlo con las distintas adiciones de uso convencional. Los resultados reflejan un buen comportamiento resistente y durable de los materiales con adición de cemesferas. La caracterización microscópica refleja su relación con las propiedades mesoscópicas y permite comprender mejor la evolución en los procesos de hidratación de las cemesferas. In recent years industrialised societies have become increasingly aware of the problem posed by indiscriminate emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Concrete, with a main component being cement, is arguably the most widely used construction material. At present, global emissions of CO2 due to the combustion of CaCO3 from Portland cement represent between 5% and 10% of the total. If the requirement of the Kyoto Protocol of a reduction of 5% of the total gas produced before 2020 is considered, then such values are of significant interest. The main objective of this work is the assessment of the microstructure and the hydration processes of cements with additions. Such an examination proposes research into new cementitious products based on vitreous spherical microparticles that may be added to the cement before the mixing process. The results are compared with the most commonly used conventional additions. The new material bases its composition on the chemistry of aluminium and silicates. By decreasing the amount of CaCO3, it is possible both to contribute to sustainable development and reduce CO2 emissions. The patent created by Grupo Cementos Portland Valderrivas (GCPV) describes the production process of microspheres (WO 2009/007470, 2010). The products that form the raw material for manufacture are clays, lime-stone, marl and industrial products or by-products that melt after being ground and fed into a gaseous fluid at high temperatures (1250°C and 1600°C). This process allows the obtaining of a product with a solid-spherical or micro-spherical shape and which, after being stabilised in a solid state by rapid cooling, obtains a high vitrification suitable for chemical reactivity, having a minimal surface in relation to its mass. Given that the final product has the fineness required, it prevents grinding that reduces CO2 emissions by saving fuel during this process. The process, which allows a wide range of cementitious materials to be obtained, not only addresses the problems caused by CO2 emissions but also enhances the availability of materials in countries that until the time of writing have not produced cement due to a lack of limestone. In addition, the calculation of the degree of hydration from the test results of DTA-TG is optimised and based on Bhatty and Pane calculation models. The proposed method allows prediction of the performance of the material from numerical interpolation of the amount of chemically bound water. The degree of hydration has a direct relationship with the development of material mechanical strength. In order to characterise the cement-based materials, an extensive experimental campaign in cement paste, concrete and mortar is conducted. The research comprises three levels: micro-structural characterisation, macro-structural and long-term behaviour (mainly durability). In total, eight additions are assessed: four conventional additions and four types of microspheres with different chemical compositions. The micro-scale tests include characterisation of chemical composition, particle size distribution and the BET specific surface area of anhydrous material, differential thermal and thermogravimetric analysis in cement paste and mortar, silicon-29 nuclear magnetic resonance in cement paste, X-ray diffraction of the anhydrous materials and paste specimens, scanning of electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analyser in cement paste and mortar, and mercury intrusion porosimetry in mortar. The macroscopic material characterisation entails determination of water demand for normal consistency, and initial and final setting times of cement paste, flexural and compressive mechanical strength tests in prismatic mortar specimens, and compressive strength tests in concrete specimens. Tests for determining the chloride migration coefficient are performed to characterise durability, together with electrical resistivity tests in mortar specimens. All the tests listed allow clarification of the behaviour of the microspheres and comparison with the various additions of conventional use. The results show good resistance and durable behaviour of materials with a microsphere addition. Microscopic characterisation reflects their relationship with mesoscopic properties and provides insights into the hydration processes of the microspheres.

Climate Change and Restoration of Degraded Land

The United Nations Climate Change Conference, Durban 2011, delivered a breakthrough on the international community's response to climate change. In the second largest meeting of its kind, the negotiations advanced, in a balanced fashion, the implementation of the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol, the Bali Action Plan, and the Cancun Agreements. The outcomes included a decision by Parties to adopt a universal legal agreement on climate change as soon as possible, and no later than 2015. One of the decisions adopted by COP 17 and CMP 7 regard to the land use, land-use change and forestry, and invites the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to review and, if necessary, update supplementary methodologies for estimating anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions by sources and removals by sinks resulting from land use, land-use change and forestry activities under Article 3, paragraphs 3 and 4, of the Kyoto Protocol. Land degradation is a human-induced or natural process which negatively affects the productivity of land within an ecosystem. The direct causes of land degradation are geographically specific. Climate change, including changes in short-term variation, as well as long-term gradual changes in temperature and precipitation, is expected to be an additional stress on rates of land degradation. Book Topics: • Introduction to Climate Change and Land Degradation • Change Mitigation • Climate Change and Waste Land Restoration • Water Management and Planning • Erosion and Hydrological Restoration • Forest Fire Land Restoration • Polluted Soils Restoration • Combating Climate Change by Restoration of Degraded Land • Research Matters – Climate Change Governance • Advanced Statistics Climate Change and Restoration of Degraded Land is of interests to academics, engineers, consultans, designers and professionals involved in restoration of degraded lands projects.