On the economics of energy consumption in 4G networks: the case of Spain

Reducing energy consumption is one of the main challenges in most countries. For example, European Member States agreed to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 20% in 2020 compared to 1990 levels (EC 2008). Considering each sector separately, ICTs account nowadays for 2% of total carbon emissions. This percentage will increase as the demand of communication services and applications steps up. At the same time, the expected evolution of ICT-based developments - smart buildings, smart grids and smart transportation systems among others - could result in the creation of energy-saving opportunities leading to global emission reductions (Labouze et al. 2008), although the amount of these savings is under debate (Falch 2010). The main development required in telecommunication networks ?one of the three major blocks of energy consumption in ICTs together with data centers and consumer equipment (Sutherland 2009) ? is the evolution of existing infrastructures into ultra-broadband networks, the so-called Next Generation Networks (NGN). Fourth generation (4G) mobile communications are the technology of choice to complete -or supplement- the ubiquitous deployment of NGN. The risk and opportunities involved in NGN roll-out are currently in the forefront of the economic and policy debate. However, the issue of which is the role of energy consumption in 4G networks seems absent, despite the fact that the economic impact of energy consumption arises as a key element in the cost analysis of this type of networks. Precisely, the aim of this research is to provide deeper insight on the energy consumption involved in the usage of a 4G network, its relationship with network main design features, and the general economic impact this would have in the capital and operational expenditures related with network deployment and usage.

Caracterización de capas de óxidos en aceros inoxidables austeníticos. Impacto sobre la industria nuclear

Este trabajo tiene como objeto caracterizar las capas de óxido formadas en el acero AISI 316L en función de la deformación del material y de su contenido en Cr a distintas temperaturas. Este acero se utiliza en los internos de las vasijas de los reactores nucleares de agua ligera, y un mejor conocimiento de su proceso de oxidación puede suponer un avance en el desarrollo de los reactores de cuarta generación. Para ello se realizaron ensayos termogravimétricos y se analizaron los resultados con técnicas de microscopía óptica y electrónica, espectrometría y difracción de rayos X. Los resultados obtenidos muestran la similitud en morfología y composición elemental de los óxidos formados en muestras de este acero con distintos grados de deformación y contenido en Cr y las diferencias resultantes en cuanto a la ganancia de masa. Abstract The object of this work is to characterize the oxide layers formed in AISI 316L steel based on the material deformation and its Cr content at various temperatures. This kind of steel is used in the inside elements of the light water nuclear reactor vessels and further knowledge in the oxidation process could mean a greater development in fourth generation reactors. Thermogravimetric tests were undertaken for this purpose, leading to the results analysis with the use of optical and electronic microscopic techniques as well as spectrometry and X–ray diffraction. The obtained results show the resemblance in the morphology and elemental composition of the oxides formed in samples of this steel with different deformation and Cr content degrees. The results also showed differences in the mass gain.

Planificación de una red 4G

La intensa evolución tecnológica que está experimentando nuestra sociedad en las últimas décadas hace que se estén desarrollando continuamente nuevas tecnologías que proporcionan mejoras tanto en la calidad como en la seguridad del servicio, este es el caso del 4G. A día de hoy, en España, la cuarta generación de comunicaciones móviles se ve encabezada por LTE, mientras que LTE-Advanced sólo se está implantando en las principales ciudades de nuestro país durante los últimos meses. Por este motivo, se ha creído interesante realizar una planificación sobre una zona que, hasta el momento, no está cubierta por cobertura LTE-Advanced. Además hay que tener en cuenta la naturaleza del terreno en el que trabajaremos, ya que se aleja del suelo urbano que encontramos en las principales ciudades con LTE-Advanced, como Madrid, Barcelona o Valencia. El estudio de esta zona semirural es de gran interés ya que uno de los objetivos de la cuarta generación es hacer llegar conexión a internet de calidad a lugares en los que no puede llegar la fibra óptica, como por ejemplo estas zonas semirurales. Para añadir aún más interés en el estudio, se ha decidido utilizar la banda de 800 MHz para el despliegue de la red. Esta banda que anteriormente era utilizada para la transmisión TDT, recientemente ha quedado liberada, en el conocido como Dividendo Digital para su uso en comunicaciones móviles. La tecnología LTE-Advanced se está empezando a desplegar en esta banda aunque realmente hasta Noviembre del año 2015 no tendremos un uso real de la misma, por lo que en estos momentos las redes 4G están utilizando la banda de 2.6 GHz. La utilización de la banda de 800 MHz conllevará mejoras tanto al usuario como a las operadoras, las cuales iremos viendo a lo largo del desarrollo del proyecto. La planificación pasará por distintas fases de optimización y expansión en las que se analizaran tanto la parte radioeléctrica como su capacidad. Se analizaran señales del tipo RSRP, RSSI o RSRQ y para el análisis de capacidad se definirá un conjunto de usuarios, distribuidos adecuadamente por toda la zona, que permitirá estudiar en detalle la capacidad de nuestra red. Para finalizar, se realizarán varias pruebas que demostrarán lo importante que es la tecnología MIMO tanto en LTE como en LTE-Advanced. ABSTRACT. Nowadays, our society is experiencing an intense pace of technological evolution which causes the constant development of new technologies. In the network planning area, these new technologies are focused on improving both quality and safety of service, with the recent deployment of 4G technologies in our networks. This project focuses on Spain, where the fourth generation of mobile communications is led by LTE, because LTE-Advanced has only been deployed in the largest cities, so far. The goal of this project is to plan, deploy and simulate LTE-Advanced network, of an area that hasn´t yet been covered. Furthermore, it will be taken into account the nature of the terrain where the network will be developed, as it moves away from urban areas in the major cities with LTE-Advanced, including Madrid, Barcelona and Valencia. The study of these semi-rural areas is extremely important because one of the main objectives of the fourth generation technologies is to get high-speed internet access to places that can be reached through other technologies, such as optical fiber. In order to adjust to the actual needs, the project was developed for the 800 MHz band. Those frequencies used to be assigned for digital terrestrial TV, but they have recently been released through the Digital Dividend in 2015 to use with mobile communications. That is the reason why, the LTE-Advanced technology in Spain is starting to be deployed in those frequencies. Despite the freeing of the 800 MHz band, it is not allowed to use it until November 2015, so 4G networks are currently using the 2.6 GHz band. The use of the 800 MHz band will led to advantages and improvements to users and operators, which will be detailed over the project. Each step of the planning of the 4G network is detailed. It is analyzed the optimization and expansion of the network, based on the radio and capacity premises. RSRP, RSSI or RSRQ signals were analyzed and an analysis of the network capacity was carried out. Finally, several tests are developed to show the importance of MIMO in LTE and LTE-Advanced.