Environmental analysis of residential building facades through energy consumption, GHG emissions and costs

This paper provides some results on the potential to minimize environmental impacts in residential buildings life cycle, through façade design strategies, analyzing also their impact on costs from a lifecycle perspective. On one hand, it assesses the environmental damage produced by the materials of the building envelope, and on the other, the benefits they offer in terms of habitability and liveability in the use phase. The analysis includes several design parameters used both for rehabilitation of existing facades, as for new facades, trying to cover various determinants and proposing project alternatives. With this study we intended to contribute to address the energy challenges for the coming years, trying also to propose pathways for innovative solutions for the building envelope.

Cover crops effect on farm benefits and nitrate leaching: Linking economic and environmental analysis.

Introducing cover crops (CC) interspersed with intensively fertilized crops in rotation has the potential to reduce nitrate leaching. This paper evaluates various strategies involving CC between maize and compares the economic and environmental results with respect to a typical maize?fallow rotation. The comparison is performed through stochastic (Monte-Carlo) simulation models of farms? profits using probability distribution functions (pdfs) of yield and N fertilizer saving fitted with data collected from various field trials and pdfs of crop prices and the cost of fertilizer fitted from statistical sources. Stochastic dominance relationships are obtained to rank the most profitable strategies from a farm financial perspective. A two-criterion comparison scheme is proposed to rank alternative strategies based on farm profit and nitrate leaching levels, taking the baseline scenario as the maize?fallow rotation. The results show that when CC biomass is sold as forage instead of keeping it in the soil, greater profit and less leaching of nitrates are achieved than in the baseline scenario. While the fertilizer saving will be lower if CC is sold than if it is kept in the soil, the revenue obtained from the sale of the CC compensates for the reduced fertilizer savings. The results show that CC would perhaps provide a double dividend of greater profit and reduced nitrate leaching in intensive irrigated cropping systems in Mediterranean regions.

Environmental analysis of a Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plant hybridised with different fossil and renewable fuels

The environmental performance of a 50 MW parabolic trough Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plant hybridised with different fuels was determined using a Life Cycle Assessment methodology. Six different scenarios were investigated, half of which involved hybridisation with fossil fuels (natural gas, coal and fuel oil), and the other three involved hybridisation with renewable fuels (wheat straw, wood pellets and biogas). Each scenario was compared to a solar-only operation. Nine different environmental categories as well as the Cumulative Energy Demand and the Energy Payback Time (EPT) were evaluated using Simapro software for 1 MWh of electricity produced. The results indicate a worse environmental performance for a CSP plant producing 12% of the electricity from fuel than in a solar-only operation for every indicator, except for the eutrophication and toxicity categories, whose results for the natural gas scenario are slightly better. In the climate change category, the results ranged between 26.9 and 187 kg CO2 eq/MWh, where a solar-only operation had the best results and coal hybridisation had the worst. Considering a weighted single score indicator, the environmental impact of the renewable fuels scenarios is approximately half of those considered in fossil fuels, with the straw scenario showing the best results, and the coal scenario the worstones. EPT for solar-only mode is 1.44 years, while hybridisation scenarios EPT vary in a range of 1.72 -1.83 years for straw and pellets respectively. The fuels with more embodied energy are biomethane and wood pellets.

Modelo para la integración del trazado de infraestructuras lineales en el paisaje y el medio ambiente basado en SIG

El análisis de las diferentes alternativas en la planificación y diseño de corredores y trazados de carreteras debe basarse en la correcta definición de variables territoriales que sirvan como criterios para la toma de decisión y esto requiere un análisis ambiental preliminar de esas variables de calidad. En España, los estudios de viabilidad de nuevas carreteras y autovías están asociados a una fase del proceso de decisión que se corresponde con el denominado Estudio Informativo, el cual establece condicionantes físicos, ambientales, de uso del suelo y culturales que deben ser considerados en las primeras fases de la definición del trazado de un corredor de carretera. Así, la metodología más frecuente es establecer diferentes niveles de capacidad de acogida del territorio en el área de estudio con el fin de resumir las variables territoriales en mapas temáticos y facilitar el proceso de trazado de las alternativas de corredores de carretera. El paisaje es un factor limitante a tener en cuenta en la planificación y diseño de carreteras y, por tanto, deben buscarse trazados más sostenibles en relación con criterios estéticos y ecológicos del mismo. Pero este factor no es frecuentemente analizado en los Estudios Informativos e incluso, si es considerado, los estudios específicos de la calidad del paisaje (estético y ecológico) y de las formas del terreno no incorporan las recomendaciones de las guías de trazado para evitar o reducir los impactos en el paisaje. Además, los mapas de paisaje que se generan en este tipo de estudios no se corresponden con la escala de desarrollo del Estudio Informativo (1:5.000). Otro déficit común en planificación de corredores y trazados de carreteras es que no se tiene en cuenta la conectividad del paisaje durante el proceso de diseño de la carretera para prevenir la afección a los corredores de fauna existentes en el paisaje. Este déficit puede originar un posterior efecto barrera en los movimientos dispersivos de la fauna y la fragmentación de sus hábitats debido a la ocupación parcial o total de las teselas de hábitats con importancia biológica para la fauna (o hábitats focales) y a la interrupción de los corredores de fauna que concentran esos movimientos dispersivos de la fauna entre teselas. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es mejorar el estudio del paisaje para prevenir su afección durante el proceso de trazado de carreteras, facilitar la conservación de los corredores de fauna (o pasillos verdes) y la localización de medidas preventivas y correctoras en términos de selección y cuantificación de factores de idoneidad a fin de reducir los impactos visuales y ecológicos en el paisaje a escala local. Concretamente, la incorporación de valores cuantitativos y bien justificados en el proceso de decisión permite incrementar la transparencia en el proceso de diseño de corredores y trazados de carreteras. Con este fin, se han planteado cuatro preguntas específicas en esta investigación (1) ¿Cómo se seleccionan y evalúan los factores territoriales limitantes para localizar una nueva carretera por los profesionales españoles de planificación del territorio en relación con el paisaje? (2) ¿Cómo pueden ser definidos los corredores de fauna a partir de factores del paisaje que influyen en los movimientos dispersivos de la fauna? (3) ¿Cómo pueden delimitarse y evaluarse los corredores de fauna incluyendo el comportamiento parcialmente errático en los movimientos dispersivos de la fauna y el efecto barrera de los elementos antrópicos a una escala local? (4) ¿Qué y cómo las recomendaciones de diseño de carreteras relacionadas con el paisaje y las formas del terreno pueden ser incluidas en un modelo de Sistemas de Información Geográfica (SIG) para ayudar a los ingenieros civiles durante el proceso de diseño de un trazado de carreteras bajo el punto de vista de la sostenibilidad?. Esta tesis doctoral propone nuevas metodologías que mejoran el análisis visual y ecológico del paisaje utilizando indicadores y modelos SIG para obtener alternativas de trazado que produzcan un menor impacto en el paisaje. Estas metodologías fueron probadas en un paisaje heterogéneo con una alta tasa de densidad de corzo (Capreolus capreolus L.), uno de los grandes mamíferos más atropellados en la red de carreteras españolas, y donde está planificada la construcción de una nueva autovía que atravesará la mitad del área de distribución del corzo. Inicialmente, se han analizado las variables utilizadas en 22 estudios de proyectos de planificación de corredores de carreteras promovidos por el Ministerio de Fomento entre 2006 y 2008. Estas variables se agruparon según condicionantes físicos, ambientales, de usos del suelo y culturales con el fin de comparar los valores asignados de capacidad de acogida del territorio a cada variable en los diferentes estudios revisados. Posteriormente, y como etapa previa de un análisis de conectividad, se construyó un mapa de resistencia de los movimientos dispersivos del corzo en base a la literatura y al juicio de expertos. Usando esta investigación como base, se le asignó un valor de resistencia a cada factor seleccionado para construir la matriz de resistencia, ponderándolo y combinándolo con el resto de factores usando el proceso analítico jerárquico y los operadores de lógica difusa como métodos de análisis multicriterio. Posteriormente, se diseñó una metodología SIG para delimitar claramente la extensión física de los corredores de fauna de acuerdo a un valor umbral de ancho geométrico mínimo, así como la existencia de múltiples potenciales conexiones entre cada par de teselas de hábitats presentes en el paisaje estudiado. Finalmente, se realizó un procesado de datos Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) y un modelo SIG para calcular la calidad del paisaje (estético y ecológico), las formas del terreno que presentan características similares para trazar una carretera y la acumulación de vistas de potenciales conductores y observadores de los alrededores de la nueva vía. Las principales contribuciones de esta investigación al conocimiento científico existente en el campo de la evaluación del impacto ambiental en relación al diseño de corredores y trazados de carreteras son cuatro. Primero, el análisis realizado de 22 Estudios Informativos de planificación de carreteras reveló que los métodos aplicados por los profesionales para la evaluación de la capacidad de acogida del territorio no fue suficientemente estandarizada, ya que había una falta de uniformidad en el uso de fuentes cartográficas y en las metodologías de evaluación de la capacidad de acogida del territorio, especialmente en el análisis de la calidad del paisaje estético y ecológico. Segundo, el análisis realizado en esta tesis destaca la importancia de los métodos multicriterio para estructurar, combinar y validar factores que limitan los movimientos dispersivos de la fauna en el análisis de conectividad. Tercero, los modelos SIG desarrollados Generador de alternativas de corredores o Generator of Alternative Corridors (GAC) y Eliminador de Corredores Estrechos o Narrow Corridor Eraser (NCE) pueden ser aplicados sistemáticamente y sobre una base científica en análisis de conectividad como una mejora de las herramientas existentes para la comprensión el paisaje como una red compuesta por nodos y enlaces interconectados. Así, ejecutando los modelos GAC y NCE de forma iterativa, pueden obtenerse corredores alternativos con similar probabilidad de ser utilizados por la fauna y sin que éstos presenten cuellos de botella. Cuarto, el caso de estudio llevado a cabo de prediseño de corredores y trazado de una nueva autovía ha sido novedoso incluyendo una clasificación semisupervisada de las formas del terreno, filtrando una nube de puntos LiDAR e incluyendo la nueva geometría 3D de la carretera en el Modelo Digital de Superficie (MDS). El uso combinado del procesamiento de datos LiDAR y de índices y clasificaciones geomorfológicas puede ayudar a los responsables encargados en la toma de decisiones a evaluar qué alternativas de trazado causan el menor impacto en el paisaje, proporciona una visión global de los juicios de valor más aplicados y, en conclusión, define qué medidas de integración paisajística correctoras deben aplicarse y dónde. ABSTRACT The assessment of different alternatives in road-corridor planning and layout design must be based on a number of well-defined territorial variables that serve as decision-making criteria, and this requires a high-quality preliminary environmental analysis of those quality variables. In Spain, feasibility studies for new roads and motorways are associated to a phase of the decision procedure which corresponds with the one known as the Informative Study, which establishes the physical, environmental, land-use and cultural constraints to be considered in the early stages of defining road corridor layouts. The most common methodology is to establish different levels of Territorial Carrying Capacity (TCC) in the study area in order to summarize the territorial variables on thematic maps and facilitate the tracing process of road-corridor layout alternatives. Landscape is a constraint factor that must be considered in road planning and design, and the most sustainable layouts should be sought based on aesthetic and ecological criteria. However this factor is not often analyzed in Informative Studies and even if it is, baseline studies on landscape quality (aesthetic and ecological) and landforms do not usually include the recommendations of road tracing guides designed to avoid or reduce impacts on the landscape. The resolution of the landscape maps produced in this type of studies does not comply with the recommended road design scale (1:5,000) in the regulations for the Informative Study procedure. Another common shortcoming in road planning is that landscape ecological connectivity is not considered during road design in order to avoid affecting wildlife corridors in the landscape. In the prior road planning stage, this issue could lead to a major barrier effect for fauna dispersal movements and to the fragmentation of their habitat due to the partial or total occupation of habitat patches of biological importance for the fauna (or focal habitats), and the interruption of wildlife corridors that concentrate fauna dispersal movements between patches. The main goal of this dissertation is to improve the study of the landscape and prevent negative effects during the road tracing process, and facilitate the preservation of wildlife corridors (or green ways) and the location of preventive and corrective measures by selecting and quantifying suitability factors to reduce visual and ecological landscape impacts at a local scale. Specifically the incorporation of quantitative and well-supported values in the decision-making process provides increased transparency in the road corridors and layouts design process. Four specific questions were raised in this research: (1) How are territorial constraints selected and evaluated in terms of landscape by Spanish land-planning practitioners before locating a new road? (2) How can wildlife corridors be defined based on the landscape factors influencing the dispersal movements of fauna? (3) How can wildlife corridors be delimited and assessed to include the partially erratic movements of fauna and the barrier effect of the anthropic elements at a local scale? (4) How recommendations of road design related to landscape and landforms can be included in a Geographic Information System (GIS) model to aid civil engineers during the road layout design process and support sustainable development? This doctoral thesis proposes new methodologies that improve the assessment of the visual and ecological landscape character using indicators and GIS models to obtain road layout alternatives with a lower impact on the landscape. These methodologies were tested on a case study of a heterogeneous landscape with a high density of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) –one of the large mammals most commonly hit by vehicles on the Spanish road network– and where a new motorway is planned to pass through the middle of their distribution area. We explored the variables used in 22 road-corridor planning projects sponsored by the Ministry of Public Works between 2006 and 2008. These variables were grouped into physical, environmental, land-use and cultural constraints for the purpose of comparing the TCC values assigned to each variable in the various studies reviewed. As a prior stage in a connectivity analysis, a map of resistance to roe deer dispersal movements was created based on the literature and experts judgment. Using this research as a base, each factor selected to build the matrix was assigned a resistance value and weighted and combined with the rest of the factors using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and fuzzy logic operators as multicriteria assessment (MCA) methods. A GIS methodology was designed to clearly delimit the physical area of wildlife corridors according to a geometric threshold width value, and the multiple potential connections between each pair of habitat patches in the landscape. A Digital Surface Model Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) dataset processing and a GIS model was performed to determine landscape quality (aesthetic and ecological) and landforms with similar characteristics for the road layout, and the cumulative viewshed of potential drivers and observers in the area surrounding the new motorway. The main contributions of this research to current scientific knowledge in the field of environmental impact assessment for road corridors and layouts design are four. First, the analysis of 22 Informative Studies on road planning revealed that the methods applied by practitioners for assessing the TCC were not sufficiently standardized due to the lack of uniformity in the cartographic information sources and the TCC valuation methodologies, especially in the analysis of the aesthetic and ecological quality of the landscape. Second, the analysis in this dissertation highlights the importance of multicriteria methods to structure, combine and validate factors that constrain wildlife dispersal movements in the connectivity analysis. Third, the “Generator of Alternative Corridors (GAC)” and “Narrow Corridor Eraser (NCE)” GIS models developed can be applied systematically and on a scientific basis in connectivity analyses to improve existing tools and understand landscape as a network composed of interconnected nodes and links. Thus, alternative corridors with similar probability of use by fauna and without bottlenecks can be obtained by iteratively running GAC and NCE models. Fourth, our case study of new motorway corridors and layouts design innovatively included semi-supervised classification of landforms, filtering of LiDAR point clouds and new 3D road geometry on the Digital Surface Model (DSM). The combined used of LiDAR data processing and geomorphological indices and classifications can help decision-makers assess which road layouts produce lower impacts on the landscape, provide an overall insight into the most commonly applied value judgments, and in conclusion, define which corrective measures should be applied in terms of landscaping, and where.

Analysis of adaptive responses of Pinus pinaster to changing environmental conditions in the Mediterranean region

Recent climate evolution studies highlight the progressive temperature increase and prevalence of seasonal drought, with specially incidence in the Mediterranean region. Although conifers are very important species regarding forest conservation, sustainability and productivity, given the large forest surface they cover in Spain and their active role in preventing soil erosion and desertification, we know little about the molecular mechanisms which control adaptation in this ancient taxonomic group

Environmental variables modeling based on remote sensing data using time series analysis: forestry and agricultural applications

En la actualidad, el seguimiento de la dinámica de los procesos medio ambientales está considerado como un punto de gran interés en el campo medioambiental. La cobertura espacio temporal de los datos de teledetección proporciona información continua con una alta frecuencia temporal, permitiendo el análisis de la evolución de los ecosistemas desde diferentes escalas espacio-temporales. Aunque el valor de la teledetección ha sido ampliamente probado, en la actualidad solo existe un número reducido de metodologías que permiten su análisis de una forma cuantitativa. En la presente tesis se propone un esquema de trabajo para explotar las series temporales de datos de teledetección, basado en la combinación del análisis estadístico de series de tiempo y la fenometría. El objetivo principal es demostrar el uso de las series temporales de datos de teledetección para analizar la dinámica de variables medio ambientales de una forma cuantitativa. Los objetivos específicos son: (1) evaluar dichas variables medio ambientales y (2) desarrollar modelos empíricos para predecir su comportamiento futuro. Estos objetivos se materializan en cuatro aplicaciones cuyos objetivos específicos son: (1) evaluar y cartografiar estados fenológicos del cultivo del algodón mediante análisis espectral y fenometría, (2) evaluar y modelizar la estacionalidad de incendios forestales en dos regiones bioclimáticas mediante modelos dinámicos, (3) predecir el riesgo de incendios forestales a nivel pixel utilizando modelos dinámicos y (4) evaluar el funcionamiento de la vegetación en base a la autocorrelación temporal y la fenometría. Los resultados de esta tesis muestran la utilidad del ajuste de funciones para modelizar los índices espectrales AS1 y AS2. Los parámetros fenológicos derivados del ajuste de funciones permiten la identificación de distintos estados fenológicos del cultivo del algodón. El análisis espectral ha demostrado, de una forma cuantitativa, la presencia de un ciclo en el índice AS2 y de dos ciclos en el AS1 así como el comportamiento unimodal y bimodal de la estacionalidad de incendios en las regiones mediterránea y templada respectivamente. Modelos autorregresivos han sido utilizados para caracterizar la dinámica de la estacionalidad de incendios y para predecir de una forma muy precisa el riesgo de incendios forestales a nivel pixel. Ha sido demostrada la utilidad de la autocorrelación temporal para definir y caracterizar el funcionamiento de la vegetación a nivel pixel. Finalmente el concepto “Optical Functional Type” ha sido definido, donde se propone que los pixeles deberían ser considerados como unidades temporales y analizados en función de su dinámica temporal. ix SUMMARY A good understanding of land surface processes is considered as a key subject in environmental sciences. The spatial-temporal coverage of remote sensing data provides continuous observations with a high temporal frequency allowing the assessment of ecosystem evolution at different temporal and spatial scales. Although the value of remote sensing time series has been firmly proved, only few time series methods have been developed for analyzing this data in a quantitative and continuous manner. In the present dissertation a working framework to exploit Remote Sensing time series is proposed based on the combination of Time Series Analysis and phenometric approach. The main goal is to demonstrate the use of remote sensing time series to analyze quantitatively environmental variable dynamics. The specific objectives are (1) to assess environmental variables based on remote sensing time series and (2) to develop empirical models to forecast environmental variables. These objectives have been achieved in four applications which specific objectives are (1) assessing and mapping cotton crop phenological stages using spectral and phenometric analyses, (2) assessing and modeling fire seasonality in two different ecoregions by dynamic models, (3) forecasting forest fire risk on a pixel basis by dynamic models, and (4) assessing vegetation functioning based on temporal autocorrelation and phenometric analysis. The results of this dissertation show the usefulness of function fitting procedures to model AS1 and AS2. Phenometrics derived from function fitting procedure makes it possible to identify cotton crop phenological stages. Spectral analysis has demonstrated quantitatively the presence of one cycle in AS2 and two in AS1 and the unimodal and bimodal behaviour of fire seasonality in the Mediterranean and temperate ecoregions respectively. Autoregressive models has been used to characterize the dynamics of fire seasonality in two ecoregions and to forecasts accurately fire risk on a pixel basis. The usefulness of temporal autocorrelation to define and characterized land surface functioning has been demonstrated. And finally the “Optical Functional Types” concept has been proposed, in this approach pixels could be as temporal unities based on its temporal dynamics or functioning.

Greenfield shopping center development. The integration between environmental features, building design and investment analysis at the decision making stage

The Shopping centre is a long term investment in which Greenfield development decisions are often taken based on risks analysis regarding construction costs, location, competition, market and an expected DCF. Furthermore, integration between the building design, project planning, operational costs and investment analysis is not entirely considered by the investor at the decision making stage. The absence of such information tends to produce certain negative impacts on the future running costs and annual maintenance of the building, especially on energy demand and other occupancy expenses paid by the tenants to the landlord. From the investor´s point of view, this blind spot in strategy development will possibly decrease their profit margin as changes in the occupancy expenses[ ] have a direct outcome on the profit margin. In order to try to reduce some higher operating cost components such as energy use and other utility savings as well as their CO2 emissions, quite a few income properties worldwide have some type of environmental label such as BREEAM and LEED. The drawback identified in this labelling is that usually the investments required to get an ecolabel are high and the investor finds no direct evidence that it increases market value. However there is research on certified commercial properties (especially offices) that shows better performance in terms of occupancy rate and rental cost (Warren-Myers, 2012). Additionally, Sayce (2013) says that the certification only provides a quick reference point i.e. the lack of a certificate does not indicate that a building is not sustainable or efficient. Based on the issues described above, this research compares important components of the development stages such as investments costs, concept/ strategy development as well as the current investor income and property value. The subjects for this analysis are a shopping centre designed with passive cooling/bioclimatic strategies evaluated at the decision making stage, a certified regional shopping centre and a non-certified standard regional shopping centre. Moreover, the proposal intends to provide decision makers with some tools for linking green design features to the investment analysis in order to optimize the decision making process when looking into cost savings and design quality.

Hybridizing concentrated solar power (CSP) with biogas and biomethane as an alternative to natural gas: Analysis of environmental performance using LCA

Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plants typically incorporate one or various auxiliary boilers operating in parallel to the solar field to facilitate start up operations, provide system stability, avoid freezing of heat transfer fluid (HTF) and increase generation capacity. The environmental performance of these plants is highly influenced by the energy input and the type of auxiliary fuel, which in most cases is natural gas (NG). Replacing the NG with biogas or biomethane (BM) in commercial CSP installations is being considered as a means to produce electricity that is fully renewable and free from fossil inputs. Despite their renewable nature, the use of these biofuels also generates environmental impacts that need to be adequately identified and quantified. This paper investigates the environmental performance of a commercial wet-cooled parabolic trough 50 MWe CSP plant in Spain operating according to two strategies: solar-only, with minimum technically viable energy non-solar contribution; and hybrid operation, where 12 % of the electricity derives from auxiliary fuels (as permitted by Spanish legislation). The analysis was based on standard Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology (ISO 14040-14040). The technical viability and the environmental profile of operating the CSP plant with different auxiliary fuels was evaluated, including: NG; biogas from an adjacent plant; and BM withdrawn from the gas network. The effect of using different substrates (biowaste, sewage sludge, grass and a mix of biowaste with animal manure) for the production of the biofuels was also investigated. The results showed that NG is responsible for most of the environmental damage associated with the operation of the plant in hybrid mode. Replacing NG with biogas resulted in a significant improvement of the environmental performance of the installation, primarily due to reduced impact in the following categories: natural land transformation, depletion of fossil resources, and climate change. However, despite the renewable nature of the biofuels, other environmental categories like human toxicity, eutrophication, acidification and marine ecotoxicity scored higher when using biogas and BM.

Multiresidue Analysis of Insecticides and Other Selected Environmental Contaminants in Poultry Manure by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry

An analytical method was developed for the simultaneous determination in poultry manure of 41 organic contaminants belonging to different chemical classes: pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Poultry manure was extracted with a modified QuEChERS method, and the extracts were analyzed by isotope dilution GC/MS. Recovery of these contaminants from samples spiked at levels ranging from 25 to 100 ng/g was satisfactory for all the compounds. The developed procedure provided LODs from 0.8 to 9.6 ng/g. The analysis of poultry manure samples collected on different farms confirmed the presence of some of the studied contaminants. Pyrethroids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were the main contaminants detected.