Los programas municipales de ocupación guiada: instrumentos preferentes de habitabilidad básica versus la urbanización informal futura. El caso de Trujillo (Perú)

El crecimiento demográfico y el proceso de urbanización que ha experimentado el planeta en el último siglo se ha traducido, en contextos de pobreza, en la generación de tugurios y en el aumento de la población viviendo en condiciones de habitabilidad precaria (HaP) fruto de la urbanización informal. Situación que, según las estimaciones de Naciones Unidas continuará teniendo lugar en las próximas décadas, especialmente en las ciudades de las regiones menos desarrolladas. Este ha sido el problema específico que se ha querido atender con el presente trabajo: la búsqueda de un instrumento urbano que incida en la reducción de las tasas de precariedad habitacional urbana futuras, la búsqueda de instrumentos que eviten que ese aumento de la urbanización se traduzca en aumento de población condenada a vivir en tugurios durante décadas. Dicha búsqueda ha tenido lugar en el marco de la teoría de la Habitabilidad Básica (HaB) desarrollada por el ICHaBCátedra UNESCO de Habitabilidad Básica de la UPM. Una HaB que consiste en la satisfacción de las necesidades fundamentales de habitabilidad pero, a su vez, o más importante aún, en una esperanza de mejora y progreso paulatino de esas condiciones elementales entendida como herramienta de desarrollo y lucha contra la pobreza. Como herramienta básica, no se trata de ofrecer las condiciones ideales, sino de brindar un camino razonable, que se considera posible, para que miles de millones de personas que viven en HaP o parecen condenadas a tener que hacerlo, puedan acceder a mejores condiciones de vida en tiempos más cortos. Entre las políticas habitacionales no convencionales puestas en marcha desde Hábitat I en 1976, las de habilitación urbana progresiva, y más en particular, la Ocupación Guiada, resultan ser en contextos de escasez económica, el mejor instrumento para hacer frente a la urbanización informal, un instrumento paradigmático mínimo preferente de implantación ex novo de HaB. Lo es, por la atención prestada en la elección del suelo y la parcelación, las dos etapas cabecera del proceso, así como por los mecanismos implementados para atender la etapa de urbanización en su fase provisional, y por dejar la última etapa, la de la edificación de las viviendas, en manos de la población. El proceso de urbanización que se favorece es parecido al de los tugurios y ocupaciones ilegales en lo referente a las etapas y mecanismos de crecimiento. Sin embargo, la diferencia está en las condiciones en las que se produce, en los niveles de salubridad y de seguridad, y en la proyección de futuro. El Programa de Ocupación Guiada 'Alto Trujillo' (POG), puesto en marcha por la municipalidad de Trujillo (Perú) entre 1995 y 2006 fue concebido para hacer frente a los procesos de urbanización informal que estaban teniendo lugar en la ciudad y ha demostrado ser un mecanismo adecuado para garantizar el acceso regulado al suelo, las infraestructuras, los servicios básicos y la vivienda en condiciones de fuerte restricción económica mediante un cogestión acertada entre municipalidad, población y demás actores del proceso. El POG eligió un suelo no vulnerable y en continuidad con el tejido urbano, con la parcelación estableció el orden geométrico del asentamiento y reservó los espacios públicos destinados a equipamientos, zonas verdes y viario, y fijó las dimensiones de las parcelas, acompañó a la población en el proceso de ocupación guiada de las mismas, así como en el posterior desarrollo progresivo del asentamiento haciendo una fuerte apuesta por lo público, relegando la construcción de las viviendas al esfuerzo de los pobladores. Los POG municipales resultan ser un instrumento replicable siempre que se den cinco condiciones: la existencia de un marco institucional adecuado que contemple la descentralización de competencias, que haya interés y continuidad política en el gobierno local, acceso a suelo urbano disponible y voluntad de co-gestión con la población. El análisis del POG ha permitido elaborar una propuesta de replicabilidad del POG basada en la experiencia de soluciones ya implementadas, que han sido contrastadas empíricamente y analizadas para aprender de sus fortalezas, oportunidades, debilidades y amenazas, así como de sus aciertos y errores. La estrategia de replicabilidad del POG se plantea como alternativa a la urbanización informal con mecanismos mejorados para que las ciudades se desarrollen siguiendo unos parámetros mínimos de HaB y no a través de asentamientos informales que dificulten el progreso futuro de las familias que los habitan y de las mismas ciudades de las que forman parte. Esta propuesta de replicabilidad, que precisa ser adaptada a cada contexto, tenía una clara vocación: intentar ser instrumento en la región del planeta donde, según las estimaciones, en los próximos treinta años el crecimiento demográfico y el proceso de urbanización serán más fuertes: África Subsahariana. Por ello, con el apoyo de expertos mozambiqueños en temas de habitabilidad, se estudió la replicabilidad en Mozambique incorporando las medidas necesarias que darían respuesta a los condicionantes particulares del país. ABSTRACT The demographic growth and the urbanisation process that the planet has experienced in the last century has turned into the generation of slums and in the increase of population living in conditions of precarious habitability (HaP) result of the informal urbanisation, in contexts of poverty. According to the United Nations estimations, this situation will continue taking place in the next decades, especially in the cities of the least developed regions. The present work has wanted to attend this specific problem by the search of an urban instrument that has an impact on the reduction of the urban future precarious housing rates, a search of instruments that prevent that this urbanisation spread become an increase of population doomed to live in slums during decades. The above mentioned search has taken place in the frame of the Basic Habitability theory (HaB) developed by the ICHaB-Cátedra UNESCO of Basic Habitability of the UPM. HaB consists of the satisfaction of the fundamental habitability needs but, in turn, or still more important, it is the hope of improvement and gradual progress of these elementary conditions. The HaB is understood as a tool of development and fight against poverty. As a basic tool, it does not offer the ideal conditions, but it offers a reasonable way, which is considered to be possible, so that thousands of million persons who live in HaP or that seem to be doomed to have to do it, could gain access to better living conditions in shorter times. Between the non conventional housing policies started up from Habitat I in 1976, those of urban progressive fitting out, and more especially, the Guided Occupation, has turned out to be, in contexts of economic shortage, the best instrument to face the informal urbanisation, a preferential and minimum paradigmatic instrument of ex-novo HaB implementation. It is so due to the attention given to the appropriate site selection and the land allotment, both headboard stages of the process, as well as to the mechanisms implemented to attend the urbanisation stage in its provisional phase, and to leave the last stage, the building process, in population hands. The urbanisation process that is favored is similar to that of the slums and squatting in what concerns the stages and mechanisms of growth. Nevertheless, the difference is in the conditions in which it takes place, in the levels of health and safety, and in the future projection. The Program of Guided Occupation 'Alto Trujillo' (PGO), turned on by the Provincial City Hall of Trujillo (Peru) between 1995 and 2006, was conceived to face the processes of informal urbanisation that took place in the city and it has demonstrated to be a mechanism adapted to guarantee the regulated access to soil, infrastructures, basic services and housing in conditions of strong economic restriction by means of a succeeded co-management between municipality, population and other process actors. The PGO chose a non vulnerable soil in continuity with the urban fabric, with the land allotment established the settlement geometric order, reserved the public spaces allocated for urban facilities, green spaces and streets, and fixed the plot dimensions, accompanied the population in the plot guided occupation process, as well as in the later progressive settlement development betting strongly for the public components, relegating the housing construction to the settlers effort. The municipal PGO turn out to be a replicable instrument under five conditions: the existence of an institutional suitable frame that contemplates the decentralization competitions, interest and political continuity in the local government, access to urban available soil and will of co-management with the population. The PGO analysis has allowed to elaborate a replicability proposal of the PGO based on the experience of the already implemented solutions, which have been empirically confirmed and analyzed to learn of its strengths, opportunities, weaknesses and threats, as well as of its successes and mistakes. The replicability strategy of the PGO is considered an alternative to the informal urbanisation with improved mechanisms in order that the cities can develop following a few HaB's minimal parameters, but not through informal settlements that would make difficult the families future progress and that of the cities where they live. This replicability proposal, that needs to be adapted to every context, had a clear vocation: try to be an instrument in the region of the planet where, according to the estimations, in the next thirty years the demographic growth and the urbanisation process will be stronger: Sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, with the support of Mozambican experts in habitability topics, the replicability was studied in Mozambique incorporating the necessary measures that would give response to the country's determinants.

Accident Management Actions In An Upper-Head Small-Break Loss-Of-Coolant Accident With High-Pressure Safety Injection Failed

Since the Three Mile Island accident, an important focus of pressurized water reactor (PWR) transient analyses has been a small-break loss-of-coolant accident (SBLOCA). In 2002, the discovery of thinning of the vessel head wall at the Davis Besse nuclear power plant reactor indicated the possibility of an SBLOCA in the upper head of the reactor vessel as a result of circumferential cracking of a control rod drive mechanism penetration nozzle - which has cast even greater importance on the study of SBLOCAs. Several experimental tests have been performed at the Large Scale Test Facility to simulate the behavior of a PWR during an upper-head SBLOCA. The last of these tests, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Nuclear Energy Agency Rig of Safety Assessment (OECD/NEA ROSA) Test 6.1, was performed in 2005. This test was simulated with the TRACE 5.0 code, and good agreement with the experimental results was obtained. Additionally, a broad analysis of an upper-head SBLOCA with high-pressure safety injection failed in a Westinghouse PWR was performed taking into account different accident management actions and conditions in order to check their suitability. This issue has been analyzed also in the framework of the OECD/NEA ROSA project and the Code Applications and Maintenance Program (CAMP). The main conclusion is that the current emergency operating procedures for Westinghouse reactor design are adequate for these kinds of sequences, and they do not need to be modified.

Impact of fire and post-fire management techniques on soil chemical properties

The effects of fire ( Control burned soil) and two emergency stabilisation techniques (grass Seeding and straw Mulching ) on 20 chemical characteristics were evaluated on 0 – 5 cm top-soils sampled 1, 90, 180 and 365 days after an experimental fi re in a steep shrubland of a temperate-humid region (NW Spain). Most part of pH (in H 2 O and KCl) variance was explained by the sampling date. No clear temporal trends were identi fi able for total soil C and N content, likely due to the large SOM pool in these soils; however, changes on soil δ 13 C were explained by the deposition of 13 C-depleted ashes, followed by its progressive erosion, while those on soil δ 15 N were a consequence of fi re induced N outputs. After the fi re, NH 4 + – N, P, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Mn, Cu, Zn and B concentrations increased, while those of NO 3 − – N, Al, Fe and Co did not vary significantly. Despite a significant decline with time, concentrations of Mg, Ca and Mn at the end of the study were still higher than in unburned soil, while those of K, Cu, Zn and B were similar to the pre-fire levels and those of NH 4 + – N, P and Na were below pre-fire values. Mulching and Seeding treatments for burned soil emergency stabilisation had significant effects on soil δ 15 N and extractable K, Mg and Ca, while data were inconclusive for their possible effects on the extractable Al, Fe and Co

An Analysis Of The Recommended Knowledge For The Software Project Management Discipline

According to the PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge), project management is “the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements” [1]. Project Management has proven to be one of the most important disciplines at the moment of determining the success of any project [2][3][4]. Given that many of the activities covered by this discipline can be said that are “horizontal” for any kind of domain, the importance of acknowledge the concepts and practices becomes even more obvious. The specific case of the projects that fall in the domain of Software Engineering are not the exception about the great influence of Project Management for their success. The critical role that this discipline plays in the industry has come to numbers. A report by McKinsey & Co [4] shows that the establishment of programs for the teaching of critical skills of project management can improve the performance of the project in time and costs. As an example of the above, the reports exposes: “One defense organization used these programs to train several waves of project managers and leaders who together administered a portfolio of more than 1,000 capital projects ranging in Project management size from $100,000 to $500 million. Managers who successfully completed the training were able to cut costs on most projects by between 20 and 35 percent. Over time, the organization expects savings of about 15 percent of its entire baseline spending”. In a white paper by the PMI (Project Management Institute) about the value of project management [5], it is stated that: “Leading organizations across sectors and geographic borders have been steadily embracing project management as a way to control spending and improve project results”. According to the research made by the PMI for the paper, after the economical crisis “Executives discovered that adhering to project management methods and strategies reduced risks, cut costs and improved success rates—all vital to surviving the economic crisis”. In every elite company, a proper execution of the project management discipline has become a must. Several members of the software industry have putted effort into achieving ways of assuring high quality results from projects; many standards, best practices, methodologies and other resources have been produced by experts from different fields of expertise. In the industry and the academic community, there is a continuous research on how to teach better software engineering together with project management [4][6]. For the general practices of Project Management the PMI produced a guide of the required knowledge that any project manager should have in their toolbox to lead any kind of project, this guide is called the PMBOK. On the side of best practices 10 and required knowledge for the Software Engineering discipline, the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) developed the SWEBOK (Software Engineering Body of Knowledge) in collaboration with software industry experts and academic researchers, introducing into the guide many of the needed knowledge for a 5-year expertise software engineer [7]. The SWEBOK also covers management from the perspective of a software project. This thesis is developed to provide guidance to practitioners and members of the academic community about project management applied to software engineering. The way used in this thesis to get useful information for practitioners is to take an industry-approved guide for software engineering professionals such as the SWEBOK, and compare the content to what is found in the PMBOK. After comparing the contents of the SWEBOK and the PMBOK, what is found missing in the SWEBOK is used to give recommendations on how to enrich project management skills for a software engineering professional. Recommendations for members of the academic community on the other hand, are given taking into account the GSwE2009 (Graduated Software Engineering 2009) standard [8]. GSwE2009 is often used as a main reference for software engineering master programs [9]. The standard is mostly based on the content of the SWEBOK, plus some contents that are considered to reinforce the education of software engineering. Given the similarities between the SWEBOK and the GSwE2009, the results of comparing SWEBOK and PMBOK are also considered valid to enrich what the GSwE2009 proposes. So in the end the recommendations for practitioners end up being also useful for the academic community and their strategies to teach project management in the context of software engineering.