Lithogeochemistry and fluid flow in the epithermal Veta Rublo base metal-silver deposit, Chonta Mine (Huancavelica, Perú)

The Chonta Mine (75º00’30” W & 13º04’30”S, 4495 to 5000 m absl), owned by Compañía Minera Caudalosa, operates a polymetallic Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag vein system of the low sulphidation epithermal type, hosted by cenozoic volcanics of dacitic to andesitic composition (Domos de Lava Formation). Veta Rublo, one of the main veins of the system, is worked underground to nearly 300 m. It strikes 60-80º NE and dips 60-70º SE; its width varies between 0.30 and 2.20m, and it crops out along 1 km, but is continued along strike by other veins, as Veta Caudalosa, for some 5 km. Typical metal contents are 7% Zn, 5% Pb, 0.4% Cu and 3 oz/t Ag, with quartz, sericite, sphalerite, galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, fahlore as main minerals, and minor carbonate and sulphosalts.

Geothermometry, ore geochemistry and fluid flow in the Esperanza Vein, Huachocolpa District (Huancavelica, Peru)

The Esperanza Zn-Pb-Ag vein, owned by Compañía de Minas Buenaventura S.A.A., lies over 4000 to 4650 masl in the Western Cordillera of the Peruvian Central Andes. The Esperanza low sulphidation epithermal vein trends ~E-W along 1500 m; it dips to the South and can be followed to 350 m depth. As other veins of the district, like Teresita and Bienaventurada, it is hosted by intermediate to felsic volcanics (andesitic to dacitic compositions) of the Huachocolpa Group (Middle Miocene to Upper Pliocene). The mineralisation occurs mostly as open space filling related to fracture development during the Quechua III deformational event. Main ore minerals are sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and Ag and Pb sulfosalts; quartz, barite and calcite are the main gangue minerals. Current production grades are ~5% Zn, ~8Oz/t Ag, ~3% Pb; usually very low Cu (mean ~0.04%).

New data on the ophiolitic VMS deposits of Moeche (Cabo Ortegal Complex, NW Spain)

As a result of the variscan collision, several allochtonous complexes were emplaced on the Iberian margin in Devonian times, among them the Cabo Ortegal Complex comprising the Moeche ophiolitic sequence. Copper has been won from several mines (Piquitos I & II, Barqueira, Maruxa) from disseminated ores and thin massive sulphide layers in the Moeche Unit, a strongly deformed meta-volcanic sequence comprising mainly quartz-chlorite schists and mylonites, which defines the top of the ophiolite. The ores were metamorphosed and strongly deformed under brittle conditions (for pyrite), but their textures are often apparently post-deformational, due to very common solution-transfer processes; they are composed mostly of pyrite and chalcopyrite, with minor sphalerite, pyrrhotite, etc., and with traces of native gold and PGE. The geology, mineralogy, and geochemistry of the orebodies relate closely to VMS of the Cu-Zn (Cyprus) type. Fluid inclusion studies allowed an estimation of metamorphic conditions at pressures of 2/2’5 kb and T 325/350ºC. New determinations using the chlorite geothermometer yield temperatures around 320 ºC, corresponding to pressures near 2 kb according to the isochores deduced from the fluid inclusion study, although in the Barqueira mine higher temperatures, up to 350 ºC, are found, corresponding to presssures up to 2’5 kb. Pb isotopic compositions of pyrite point to a double source of Pb, i.e. a main mantle and a subordinate crustal source. The values for 87SR/86Sr in pyrite support this interpretation, but some results suggest later mobilization in an open system, corresponding to solution-transfer. Age determinations of pyrite deduced from the Pb isotope uranogenic graph, ≈ 480 Ma, do not fit with the metamorphic ages published for the Moeche Unit, and might point to the age of Pb extraction from the mantle.

Gold Ores Related to Shear Zones, West Santa Comba Fervenza Area (Galicia, NW Spain): A Mineralogical Study

Recent research has discovered high-grade Au ores in NNE-SSW trending shear zones in metamorphic proterozoic and palaeozoic terranes, some 40 km NW of Santiago de Compostela (NW Spain). The orebodies are bound to late-stage Hercynian structures, mainly due to brittle deformation, which are superimposed on earlier ductile shear zones, cutting through various catazonal lithologies, including ortho- and paragneisses, amphibolites, eclogites, and granites. Ore mineralogy, alteration, and ore textures define a frame whose main features are common to all prospects in the area. Main minerals are arsenopyrite and pyrite - accompanied by quartz, adularia, sericite, + (tourmaline, chlorite, carbonates, graphite), as main gangue minerals - with subordinate amounts of boulangerite, bismuthinite, kobellite, jamesonite, chalcopyrite, marcasite, galena, sphalerite, rutile, titanite, scheelite, beryl, fluorite, and minor native gold, electrum, native bismuth, fahlore, pyrrhotite, mackinawite, etc., defining a meso-catathermal paragenesis. Detailed microscopic study allows the author to propose a general descriptive scheme of textural classification for this type of ore. Most of the ores fill open spaces or veins, seal cracks or cement breccias; disseminated ores with replacement features related to alteration (mainly silicification, sericitization, and adularization) are also observed. Intensive and repeated cataclasis is a common feature of many ores, suggesting successive events of brittle deformation, hydrothermal flow, and ore precipitation. Gold may be transported and accumulated in any of these events, but tends to be concentrated in later ones. The origin of the gold ores is explained in terms of hydrotherreal discharge, associated with mainly brittle deformation and possibly related to granitic magmas, in the global tectonic frame of crustal evolution of West Galicia. The mineralogical and textural study suggests some criteria which will be of practical value for exploration and for ore processing. Ore grades can be improved by flotation of arsenopyrite. Non-conventional methods, such as pressure or bacterial leaching, may subsequently obtain a residue enriched in gold.

Ionization levels of doped copper indium sulfide chalcopyrites

The electronic structure of modified chalcopyrite CuInS2 has been analyzed from first principles within the density functional theory. The host chalcopyrite has been modified by introducing atomic impurities M at substitutional sites in the lattice host with M = C, Si, Ge, Sn, Ti, V, Cr, Fe, Co, Ni, Rh, and Ir. Both substitutions M for In and M for Cu have been analyzed. The gap and ionization energies are obtained as a function of the M-S displacements. It is interesting for both spintronic and optoelectronic applications because it can provide significant information with respect to the pressure effect and the nonradiative recombination.

Microtermometría, direcciones de flujo hidrotermal y metalogenia del yacimiento de tungsteno de Pasto Bueno (Ancash, Perú)

El yacimiento de Pasto Bueno se localiza en el extremo nordeste del Batolito de la Cordillera Blanca, comprende diversas vetas, generalmente subverticales, asociadas al stock cuarzomonzonitico de Consuzo, datado como Terciario Superior, que intruye a las pizarras de la fm. Chicama y cuarcitas de la fm. Chimu. Las principales vetas discurren con direccion N-S cortando al stock, aunque tambien existen sistemas NE-SW asi como NW-SE encajados sobre las rocas metamorficas. La mineralogia de mena reconocida comprende wolframita (hubnerita), tetraedrita/tenantita, esfalerita y galena, en una ganga de cuarzo, fluorita, sericita, pirita y carbonatos, ademas de molibdenita, calcopirita, bornita, arsenopirita, enargita (luzonita), stolzita, scheelita, zinnwaldita, topacio, tungstita y arsenico nativo. Estudios previos han caracterizado Pasto Bueno como un yacimiento con una gran componente de greisen, con una evolucion de las vetas desde un episodio temprano esteril de 400 oC, depositando la mineralizacion economica en torno a los 220-250 oC y con un evento postumo de 175-220 oC rico en CO2. La precipitacion de la wolframita se produjo a partir de un fluido netamente hidrotermal, sin embargo, dicha precipitacion estuvo controlada por el aporte al sistema de aguas externas meteoricas y/o metamorficas. El trabajo llevado a cabo ha consistido en la realizacion de un estudio microtermometrico de las 3 principales estructuras del distrito: Consuelo, Alonso-Fenix y Chabuca, para caracterizar la evolucion del fluido mineralizador desde el stock (veta Consuelo) hacia las rocas metasedimentarias de las fm. Chicama y Chimu (manto Alonso-Fenix y veta Chabuca). Para ello se realizo un muestreo sobre el evento principal de mineralizacion. Dichas muestras se sometieron a un estudio petrografico de lamina gruesa para seleccionar las muestras optimas para el posterior estudio microtermometrico. Previamente a la obtencion de las medidas de temperatura de fusion del hielo (criotermometria) y de homogenizacion del fluido; se realizo un estudio de petrografia de inclusiones fluidas para caracterizarlas y seleccionar las representativas. La interpretacion de los resultados ha permitido confirmar la existencia de un episodio previo de alta temperatura, superior a 282 oC y un evento mineralizador con temperaturas en torno a los 200-240 oC. Sin embargo, las salinidades obtenidas son mucho menores que las previamente publicadas, en torno al 5 % peso eq. NaCl, frente a 11-17 % peso eq. NaCl. Tambien se ha observado un fluido postumo rico en CO2, pero de temperatura superior, en torno a los 270 oC. Los gradientes isotermicos muestran dos focos para dichos fluidos hidrotermales: el primero asociado al stock en la veta Consuelo, y el segundo en la veta Chabuca, asociado a la zona de cabalgamiento de las pizarras de la fm. Chicama sobre las cuarcitas de la fm. Chimu. Este segundo foco puede corresponder con los aportes externos de aguas metamorficas. Para finalizar, se dan una serie de pautas para guiar las futuras exploraciones en el yacimiento. ABSTRACT The Pasto Bueno deposit is located at the northeastern end of the Cordillera Blanca Batholith. It comprises several veins, generally subvertical, associated with the quartz-monzonite stock of Consuzo, dated as Tertiary, which intrudes the Chicama fm. slates and the Chimu fm. quartzites. The main veins trend N-S cutting the stock, although there are also NE-SW and NWSE systems, hosted by the metamorphic rocks. The ore mineralogy comprises wolframite (hubnerite), tetrahedrite/tennantite, sphalerite and galena in a gangue of quartz, fluorite, sericite, pyrite and carbonates, and minor molybdenite, chalcopyrite, bornite, arsenopyrite, enargite (luzonite), stolzite, scheelite, zinnwaldite, topaz, tungstite and native arsenic. Previous studies have characterized Pasto Bueno as a deposit with a large component of greisen, with an evolution of the veins from an early barren 400 oC event , followed by economic mineralization of about 220-250 °C and a late event of 175 -220 oC rich in CO2. Wolframite precipitation occurred from a purely hydrothermal fluid; however, this precipitation was controlled by an external flux of meteoric and/or metamorphic waters. Microthermometric studies of the 3 main structures of the district (Consuelo, Alonso-Fenix and Chabuca veins) have been carried out to depict the evolution of the mineralizing fluid coming from the stock (Consuelo vein) into the metasedimentary rocks of the Chimu and Chicama fm. (Alonso-Fenix and Chabuca veins). The sampling was performed over the main event of mineralization. These samples were subject to a quick plate petrography study in order to select the optimal samples for further microthermometry studies. Before the freezing/heating measures, a fluid inclusion petrography study was done to characterize and select the representative F.I. Interpretation of results has confirmed the existence of a previous episode of higher temperature, over 282 °C, and a mineralizing event with temperatures of about 200-240 °C. However, obtained salinities, about 5 wt% NaCl equivalents, are much lower than those previously reported, about 11-17 wt% NaCl equivalents. A last fluid, rich in CO2, but of higher temperature, about 270 oC, has been characterized. Isothermal gradients show two foci for the hydrothermal fluids: the first one associated to the Consuzo stock as shown in the Consuelo vein, and the second one related to the thrust fault which places the Chicama fm. slates over the Chimu fm. quartzites in the Chabuca vein area. This second focus may correspond to an external input of metamorphic waters. Finally, some guidelines have been given to guide future explorations.

Caracterización automatizada de texturas de menas mediante análisis digital de imagen para su aplicación geometalúrgica

La mineralogía de procesos se ha convertido en los últimos años en una herramienta indispensable dentro del ámbito minero-metalúrgico debido fundamentalmente a la emergencia de la Geometalurgia. Esta disciplina en auge, a través de la integración de datos geológicos, mineros y metalúrgicos, proporciona la información necesaria para que el circuito de concentración mineral pueda responder de manera rápida y eficaz a la variabilidad mineralógica inherente a la geología del yacimiento. Para la generación del modelo geometalúrgico, la mineralogía de procesos debe aportar datos cuantitativos sobre los rasgos mineralógicos influyentes en el comportamiento de los minerales y para ello se apoya en el uso de sistemas de análisis mineralógico automatizado. Estos sistemas son capaces de proporcionar gran cantidad de datos mineralógicos de manera rápida y precisa. Sin embargo, cuando se trata de la caracterización de la textura, el mineralogista debe recurrir a descripciones cualitativas basadas en la observación, ya que los sistemas actuales no ofrecen información textural automatizada. Esta tesis doctoral surge precisamente para proporcionar de manera sistemática información textural relevante para los procesos de concentración mineral. La tesis tiene como objetivo principal la identificación y caracterización del tipo de intercrecimiento que un determinado mineral presenta en las partículas minerales, e inicialmente se han tenido en cuenta los siete tipos de intercrecimiento considerados como los más relevantes bajo el punto de vista del comportamiento de las partículas minerales durante flotación, lixiviación y molienda. Para alcanzar este objetivo se ha desarrollado una metodología basada en el diseño y cálculo de una serie de índices numéricos, a los que se ha llamado índices mineralúrgicos, que cumplen una doble función: por un lado, cada índice aporta información relevante para caracterizar los principales rasgos mineralógicos que gobiernan el comportamiento de las partículas minerales a lo largo de los procesos de concentración y por otro lado, estos índices sirven como variables discriminantes para identificar el tipo de intercrecimiento mineral mediante la aplicación de Análisis Discriminante. Dentro del conjunto de índices propuestos en este trabajo, se han considerado algunos índices propuestos por otros autores para su aplicación tanto en el ámbito de la mineralogía como en otros ámbitos de la ciencia de materiales. Se trata del Índice de Contigüidad (Gurland, 1958), Índice de Intercrecimiento (Amstutz y Giger, 1972) e Índice de Coordinación (Jeulin, 1981), adaptados en este caso para el análisis de partículas minerales. El diseño de los índices se ha basado en los principios básicos de la Estereología y el análisis digital de imagen, y su cálculo se ha llevado a cabo aplicando el método de interceptos lineales mediante la programación en MATLAB de varias rutinas. Este método estereológico permite recoger una serie de medidas a partir de las que es posible calcular varios parámetros, tanto estereológicos como geométricos, que han servido de base para calcular los índices mineralúrgicos. Para evaluar la capacidad discriminatoria de los índices mineralúrgicos se han seleccionado 200 casos en los que se puede reconocer de manera clara alguno de los siete tipos de intercrecimiento considerados inicialmente en este trabajo. Para cada uno de estos casos se han calculado los índices mineralúrgicos y se ha aplicado Análisis Discriminante, obteniendo un porcentaje de acierto en la clasificación del 95%. Esta cifra indica que los índices propuestos son discriminadores fiables del tipo de intercrecimiento. Una vez probada la capacidad discriminatoria de los índices, la metodología desarrollada ha sido aplicada para caracterizar una muestra de un concentrado de cobre procedente de la mina Kansanshi (Zambia). Esta caracterización se ha llevado a cabo para obtener la distribución de calcopirita según su tipo de intercrecimiento. La utilidad de esta distribución ha sido analizada bajo diferentes puntos de vista y en todos ellos los índices mineralúrgicos aportan información valiosa para caracterizar el comportamiento mineralúrgico de las partículas minerales. Los resultados derivados tanto del Análisis Discriminante como de la caracterización del concentrado de Kansanshi muestran la fiabilidad, utilidad y versatilidad de la metodología desarrollada, por lo que su integración como herramienta rutinaria en los sistemas actuales de análisis mineralógico pondría a disposición del mineralurgista gran cantidad de información textural complementaria a la información ofrecida por las técnicas actuales de caracterización mineralógica. ABSTRACT Process mineralogy has become in the last decades an essential tool in the mining and metallurgical sphere, especially driven by the emergence of Geometallurgy. This emergent discipline provides required information to efficiently tailor the circuit performance to the mineralogical variability inherent to ore deposits. To contribute to the Geometallurgical model, process mineralogy must provide quantitative data about the main mineralogical features implied in the minerallurgical behaviour of minerals. To address this characterisation, process mineralogy relies on automated systems. These systems are capable of providing a large amount of data quickly and accurately. However, when it comes to the characterisation of texture, mineralogists need to turn to qualitative descriptions based on observation, due to the fact that current systems can not offer quantitative textural information in a routine way. Aiming at the automated characterisation of textural information, this doctoral thesis arises to provide textural information relevant for concentration processes in a systematic way. The main objective of the thesis is the automated identification and characterisation of intergrowth types in mineral particles. Initially, the seven intergrowth types most relevant for flotation, leaching and grinding are considered. To achieve this goal, a methodology has been developed based on the computation of a set of numerical indices, which have been called minerallurgical indices. These indices have been designed with two main purposes: on the one hand, each index provides information to characterise the main mineralogical features which determine particle behaviour during concentration processes and, on the other hand, these indices are used as discriminant variables for identifying the intergrowth type by Discriminant Analysis. Along with the indices developed in this work, three indices proposed by other authors belonging to different fields of materials science have been also considered after being adapted to the analysis of mineral particles. These indices are Contiguity Index (Gurland, 1958), Intergrowth Index (Amstutz and Giger, 1972) and Coordination Index (Jeulin, 1981). The design of minerallurgical indices is based on the fundamental principles of Stereology and Digital Image Analysis. Their computation has been carried out using the linear intercepts method, implemented by means of MATLAB programming. This stereological method provides a set of measurements to obtain several parameters, both stereological and geometric. Based on these parameters, minerallurgical indices have been computed. For the assessment of the discriminant capacity of the developed indices, 200 cases have been selected according to their internal structure, so that one of the seven intergrowth types initially considered in this work can be easily recognised in any of their constituents. Minerallurgical indices have been computed for each case and used as discriminant variables. After applying discriminant analysis, 95% of the cases were correctly classified. This result shows that the proposed indices are reliable identifiers of intergrowth type. Once the discriminant power of the indices has been assessed, the developed methodology has been applied to characterise a copper concentrate sample from the Kansanshi copper mine (Zambia). This characterisation has been carried out to quantify the distribution of chalcopyrite with respect to intergrowth types. Different examples of the application of this distribution have been given to test the usefulness of the method. In all of them, the proposed indices provide valuable information to characterise the minerallurgical behaviour of mineral particles. Results derived from both Discriminant Analysis and the characterisation of the Kansanshi concentrate show the reliability, usefulness and versatility of the developed methodology. Therefore, its integration as a routine tool in current systems of automated mineralogical analysis should make available for minerallurgists a great deal of complementary information to treat the ore more efficiently.

Automated characterisation of intergrowth textures in mineral particles. A case study

The characterisation of mineral texture has been a major concern for process mineralogists, as liberation characteristics of the ores are intimately related to the mineralogical texture. While a great effort has been done to automatically characterise texture in unbroken ores, the characterisation of textural attributes in mineral particles is usually descriptive. However, the quantitative characterisation of texture in mineral particles is essential to improve and predict the performance of minerallurgical processes (i.e. all the processes involved in the liberation and separation of the mineral of interest) and to achieve a more accurate geometallurgical model. Driven by this necessity of achieving a more complete characterisation of textural attributes in mineral particles, a methodology has been recently developed to automatically characterise the type of intergrowth between mineral phases within particles by means of digital image analysis. In this methodology, a set ofminerallurgical indices has been developed to quantify different mineralogical features and to identify the intergrowth pattern by discriminant analysis. The paper shows the application of the methodology to the textural characterisation of chalcopyrite in the rougher concentrate of the Kansanshi copper mine (Zambia). In this sample, the variety of intergrowth patterns of chalcopyrite with the other minerals has been used to illustrate the methodology. The results obtained show that the method identifies the intergrowth type and provides quantitative information to achieve a complete and detailed mineralogical characterisation. Therefore, the use of this methodology as a routinely tool in automated mineralogy would contribute to a better understanding of the ore behaviour during liberation and separation processes.

New perspectives on quantitative textural analysis

Process mineralogy provides the mineralogical information required by geometallurgists to address the inherent variation of geological data. The successful benefitiation of ores mostly depends on the ability of mineral processing to be efficiently adapted to the ore characteristics, being liberation one of the most relevant mineralogical parameters. The liberation characteristics of ores are intimately related to mineral texture. Therefore, the characterization of liberation necessarily requieres the identification and quantification of those textural features with a major bearing on mineral liberation. From this point of view grain size, bonding between mineral grains and intergrowth types are considered as the most influential textural attributes. While the quantification of grain size is a usual output of automated current technologies, information about grain boundaries and intergrowth types is usually descriptive and difficult to quantify to be included in the geometallurgical model. Aiming at the systematic and quantitative analysis of the intergrowth type within mineral particles, a new methodology based on digital image analysis has been developed. In this work, the ability of this methodology to achieve a more complete characterization of liberation is explored by the analysis of chalcopyrite in the rougher concentrate of the Kansanshi copper-gold mine (Zambia). Results obtained show that the method provides valuable textural information to achieve a better understanding of mineral behaviour during concentration processes. The potential of this method is enhanced by the fact that it provides data unavailable by current technologies. This opens up new perspectives on the quantitative analysis of mineral processing performance based on textural attributes.

Preliminary mineralogy and ore petrology of the intermediate-sulfidation pallancata deposit, Ayacucho, Peru

Se investiga la compleja mineralogía del Yacimiento de Pallancata (6º productor de plata del mundo) y se establecen las condiciones de formación (P.T) basadas en la petrología de las menas comparada con los datos de mineralogía experimental y en la petrografía y microtermometría de inclusiones fluídas en la ganga silicatada, resultando un depósito típicamente caracterizado como epitermal de sulfuración intermedia.ABSTRACT:Pallancata is a world-class intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposit, hosted by upper Miocene volcanics of the south-central Peruvian Andes in a sinuous N70ºW, ∼75º SW strike-slip structure, with wide (up to 35 m) pull-apart dilation zones related to bends of the vein strike. The structural evolution of the vein from earlier brecciation to later open space infill resembles the Shila Paula district (Chauvet et al. 2006). Fluid inclusion petrography and microthermometry show that ore deposition is related to protracted boiling of very diluted, mainly meteoric fluids, starting at 250–260 ºC, under ∼300 m hydrostatic head. The mineralogical-petrological study reveals a complex sequence of mineralization (eight stages) and mineral reactions consistent with Ag2S enrichment or Sb2S3 depletion, or both, during cooling over the temperature range 250–200 ºC: pyrite, sphalerite, galena, miargyrite, pyrargyrite-proustite, chalcopyrite, polybasite-pearceite, argentite (now acanthite), and Au–Ag alloy (“electrum”). This Ag2S enrichment and Sb2S3depletion during cooling may be explained by decay of a Ag-rich galena precursor at deeper levels (Pb2S2–AgSbS2 solid solution), which rapidly becomes unstable with decreasing temperature, producing residual (stoichiometric) PbS and more mobile Ag and Sb sulfide phases, which migrated upward and laterally away from the thermal core of the system. The core is still undisclosed by mining works, but the available geochemical evidence (logAg/log Pb ratios decreasing at depth) is consistent with this interpretation, implying a deeper potential resource. Data from sulfide geothermometry, based on mineral equilibria, document the thermal evolution of the system below 200 ºC (stephanite, uytenbogaardtite, jalpaite, stromeyerite, mckinstryite, among others). The end of the most productive stages (3, 4, and 5) is marked by the precipitation of stephanite at temperatures below 197 ± 5 ºC, but precipitation of residual silver continues through the waning stages of the hydrothermal system down to <93.3 ºC (stromeyerite) or in a supergene redistribution (stage 8, acanthite II).