Detection and quantification of peanut traces in wheat flour by near infrared hyperspectral imaging spectroscopy using principal-component analysis

The use of a common environment for processing different powder foods in the industry has increased the risk of finding peanut traces in powder foods. The analytical methods commonly used for detection of peanut such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) represent high specificity and sensitivity but are destructive and time-consuming, and require highly skilled experimenters. The feasibility of NIR hyperspectral imaging (HSI) is studied for the detection of peanut traces down to 0.01% by weight. A principal-component analysis (PCA) was carried out on a dataset of peanut and flour spectra. The obtained loadings were applied to the HSI images of adulterated wheat flour samples with peanut traces. As a result, HSI images were reduced to score images with enhanced contrast between peanut and flour particles. Finally, a threshold was fixed in score images to obtain a binary classification image, and the percentage of peanut adulteration was compared with the percentage of pixels identified as peanut particles. This study allowed the detection of traces of peanut down to 0.01% and quantification of peanut adulteration from 10% to 0.1% with a coefficient of determination (r2) of 0.946. These results show the feasibility of using HSI systems for the detection of peanut traces in conjunction with chemical procedures, such as RT-PCR and ELISA to facilitate enhanced quality-control surveillance on food-product processing lines.

The counteractive effect of the sensor housing on the unit sensitivity across a series of dynamic temperature profiles.

The advantages of wireless sensing implemented on the cold chain of fresh products are well known. These sensor systems consist of a combination of delicate internal electronic circuitry enclosed in a special housing unit. Manufacturers however are presented with the challenge that the housing required to withstand the harsh environment in which the sensors are being used all too often take from the functionality of the sensor. Therefore the target of this study is to determine the dynamic behavior and the counteractive effects of the sensor housing on temperature recording accuracy in the wireless nodes of Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) semi-passive tags. Two kind of semi-passive Turbo Tags were used (T700 and T702-B), which consisted of sensors with and without a cover, and two kind of WSN nodes, IRIS (sensors Intersema and Sensirion soldered in the motherboard) and NLAZA (Sensirion in a cable and soldered to the motherboard). To recreate the temperature profiles the devices were rotated between a cold room(5 ��C) through a ambient room(23 ��C) to a heated environment (35��C) and vice versa. Analysis revealed the differences between housing and no housing are 308.22s to 21.99s respectively in the step from 5 to 35 ��C. As is demonstrated in these experiments the influence of the housing significantly hinders sensor accuracy.

Design and optimization of optical, fiber based PSK demodulators for high-bit-rate optical networks

El objetivo principal de esta tesis ha sido el dise��o y la optimizaci��n de receptores implementados con fibra ��ptica, para ser usados en redes ��pticas de alta velocidad que empleen formatos de modulaci��n de fase. En los ��ltimos a��os, los formatos de modulaci��n de fase (Phase Shift keying, PSK) han captado gran atenci��n debido a la mejora de sus prestaciones respecto a los formatos de modulaci��n convencionales. Principalmente, presentan una mejora de la eficiencia espectral y una mayor tolerancia a la degradaci��n de la se��al causada por la dispersi��n crom��tica, la dispersi��n por modo de polarizaci��n y los efectos no-lineales en la fibra ��ptica. En este trabajo, se analizan en detalle los formatos PSK, incluyendo sus variantes de modulaci��n de fase diferencial (Differential Phase Shift Keying, DPSK), en cuadratura (Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, DQPSK) y multiplexaci��n en polarizaci��n (Polarization Multiplexing Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, PM-DQPSK), con la finalidad de dise��ar y optimizar los receptores que permita su demodulaci��n. Para ello, se han analizado y desarrollado nuevas estructuras que ofrecen una mejora en las prestaciones del receptor y una reducci��n de coste comparadas con las actualmente disponibles. Para la demodulaci��n de se��ales DPSK, en esta tesis, se proponen dos nuevos receptores basados en un interfer��metro en l��nea Mach-Zehnder (MZI) implementado con tecnolog��a todo-fibra. El principio de funcionamiento de los MZI todo-fibra propuestos se asienta en la interferencia modal que se produce en una fibra multimodo (MMF) cuando se situada entre dos monomodo (SMF). Este tipo de configuraci��n (monomodo-multimodo-monomodo, SMS) presenta un buen ratio de extinci��n interferente si la potencia acoplada en la fibra multimodo se reparte, principal y equitativamente, entre dos modos dominantes. Con este objetivo, se han estudiado y demostrado tanto te��rica como experimentalmente dos nuevas estructuras SMS que mejoran el ratio de extinci��n. Una de las propuestas se basa en emplear una fibra multimodo de ��ndice gradual cuyo perfil del ��ndice de refracci��n presenta un hundimiento en su zona central. La otra consiste en una estructura SMS con las fibras desalineadas y donde la fibra multimodo es una fibra de ��ndice gradual convencional. Para las dos estructuras, mediante el an��lisis te��rico desarrollado, se ha demostrado que el 80 ��� 90% de la potencia de entrada se acopla a los dos modos dominantes de la fibra multimodo y se consigue una diferencia inferior al 10% entre ellos. Tambi��n se ha demostrado experimentalmente que se puede obtener un ratio de extinci��n de al menos 12 dB. Con el objeto de demostrar la capacidad de estas estructuras para ser empleadas como demoduladores de se��ales DPSK, se han realizado numerosas simulaciones de un sistema de transmisi��n ��ptico completo y se ha analizado la calidad del receptor bajo diferentes perspectivas, tales como la sensibilidad, la tolerancia a un filtrado ��ptico severo o la tolerancia a las dispersiones crom��tica y por modo de polarizaci��n. En todos los casos se ha concluido que los receptores propuestos presentan rendimientos comparables a los obtenidos con receptores convencionales. En esta tesis, tambi��n se presenta un dise��o alternativo para la implementaci��n de un receptor DQPSK, basado en el uso de una fibra mantenedora de la polarizaci��n (PMF). A trav��s del an��lisi te��rico y del desarrollo de simulaciones num��ricas, se ha demostrado que el receptor DQPSK propuesto presenta prestaciones similares a los convencionales. Para complementar el trabajo realizado sobre el receptor DQPSK basado en PMF, se ha extendido el estudio de su principio de demodulaci��n con el objeto de demodular se��ales PM-DQPSK, obteniendo como resultado la propuesta de una nueva estructura de demodulaci��n. El receptor PM-DQPSK propuesto se basa en la estructura conjunta de una ��nica l��nea de retardo junto con un rotador de polarizaci��n. Se ha analizado la calidad de los receptores DQPSK y PM-DQPSK bajo diferentes perspectivas, tales como la sensibilidad, la tolerancia a un filtrado ��ptico severo, la tolerancia a las dispersiones crom��tica y por modo de polarizaci��n o su comportamiento bajo condiciones no-ideales. En comparaci��n con los receptores convencionales, nuestra propuesta exhibe prestaciones similares y adem��s permite un dise��o m��s simple que redunda en un coste potencialmente menor. En las redes de comunicaciones ��pticas actuales se utiliza la tecnolog��a de multimplexaci��n en longitud de onda (WDM) que obliga al uso de filtros ��pticos con bandas de paso lo m��s estrechas posibles y a emplear una serie de dispositivos que incorporan filtros en su arquitectura, tales como los multiplexores, demultiplexores, ROADMs, conmutadores y OXCs. Todos estos dispositivos conectados entre s�� son equivalentes a una cadena de filtros cuyo ancho de banda se va haciendo cada vez m��s estrecho, llegando a distorsionar la forma de onda de las se��ales. Por esto, adem��s de analizar el impacto del filtrado ��ptico en las se��ales de 40 Gbps DQPSK y 100 Gbps PM-DQPSK, este trabajo de tesis se completa estudiando qu�� tipo de filtro ��ptico minimiza las degradaciones causadas en la se��al y analizando el n��mero m��ximo de filtros concatenados que permiten mantener la calidad requerida al sistema. Se han estudiado y simulado cuatro tipos de filtros ��pticos;Butterworth, Bessel, FBG y F-P. ABSTRACT The objective of this thesis is the design and optimization of optical fiber-based phase shift keying (PSK) demodulators for high-bit-rate optical networks. PSK modulation formats have attracted significant attention in recent years, because of the better performance with respect to conventional modulation formats. Principally, PSK signals can improve spectrum efficiency and tolerate more signal degradation caused by chromatic dispersion, polarization mode dispersion and nonlinearities in the fiber. In this work, many PSK formats were analyzed in detail, including the variants of differential phase modulation (Differential Phase Shift Keying, DPSK), in quadrature (Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, DQPSK) and polarization multiplexing (Polarization Multiplexing Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, PM-DQPSK), in order to design and optimize receivers enabling demodulations. Therefore, novel structures, which offer good receiver performances and a reduction in cost compared to the current structures, have been analyzed and developed. Two novel receivers based on an all-fiber in-line Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) were proposed for DPSK signal demodulation in this thesis. The operating principle of the all-fiber MZI is based on the modal interference that occurs in a multimode fiber (MMF) when it is located between two single-mode fibers (SMFs). This type of configuration (Single-mode-multimode-single-mode, SMS) can provide a good extinction ratio if the incoming power from the SMF could be coupled equally into two dominant modes excited in the MMF. In order to improve the interference extinction ratio, two novel SMS structures have been studied and demonstrated, theoretically and experimentally. One of the two proposed MZIs is based on a graded-index multimode fiber (MMF) with a central dip in the index profile, located between two single-mode fibers (SMFs). The other one is based on a conventional graded-index MMF mismatch spliced between two SMFs. Theoretical analysis has shown that, in these two schemes, 80 ��� 90% of the incoming power can be coupled into the two dominant modes exited in the MMF, and the power difference between them is only ~10%. Experimental results show that interference extinction ratio of 12 dB could be obtained. In order to demonstrate the capacity of these two structures for use as DPSK signal demodulators, numerical simulations in a completed optical transmission system have been carried out, and the receiver quality has been analyzed under different perspectives, such as sensitivity, tolerance to severe optical filtering or tolerance to chromatic and polarization mode dispersion. In all cases, from the simulation results we can conclude that the two proposed receivers can provide performances comparable to conventional ones. In this thesis, an alternative design for the implementation of a DQPSK receiver, which is based on a polarization maintaining fiber (PMF), was also presented. To complement the work made for the PMF-based DQPSK receiver, the study of the demodulation principle has been extended to demodulate PM-DQPSK signals, resulting in the proposal of a novel demodulation structure. The proposed PM-DQPSK receiver is based on only one delay line and a polarization rotator. The quality of the proposed DQPSK and PM-DQPSK receivers under different perspectives, such as sensitivity, tolerance to severe optical filtering, tolerance to chromatic dispersion and polarization mode dispersion, or behavior under non-ideal conditions. Compared with the conventional receivers, our proposals exhibit similar performances but allow a simpler design which can potentially reduce the cost. The wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technology used in current optical communications networks requires the use of optical filters with a passband as narrow as possible, and the use of a series of devices that incorporate filters in their architecture, such as multiplexers, demultiplexers, switches, reconfigurable add-drop multiplexers (ROADMs) and optical cross-connects (OXCs). All these devices connected together are equivalent to a chain of filters whose bandwidth becomes increasingly narrow, resulting in distortion to the waveform of the signals. Therefore, in addition to analyzing the impact of optical filtering on signal of 40 Gbps DQPSK and 100 Gbps PM-DQPSK, we study which kind of optical filter minimizes the signal degradation and analyze the maximum number of concatenated filters for maintaining the required quality of the system. Four types of optical filters, including Butterworth, Bessel, FBG and FP, have studied and simulated.

Definici��n de los procedimientos e indicadores de la cadena de custodia de la industria de pasta y papel vinculados a la normativa ISO 9000/14000

En el trabajo se ha reflejado la g��nesis del t��rmino ���desarrollo sostenible��� y la preocupaci��n social y de los gobiernos hacia la sostenibilidad de los recursos, generando una pol��tica forestal a escala internacional, cuyo hito inicial desempe��a la Cumbre de Rio y otros procesos, donde surge el t��rmino ���sostenibilidad��� - procesos gubernamentales que ponen su atenci��n en los bosques,entre ellos el Proceso paneuropeo del que emanan los Criterios e indicadores de la gesti��n forestal sostenible, as�� como otros foros donde aparece la vinculaci��n entre los productos y la sostenibilidad de los bosques de donde proceden. A partir de esos conceptos aparecen los sistemas de certificaci��n, primero FSC, promovido por las ONG ambientalistas, y en respuesta a ello, el sistema PEFC de los propietarios forestales privados con las industrias forestales. En su introducci��n, el trabajo recoge como surge y evoluciona esta preocupaci��n y como se sucede y desarrollan los sistemas de certificaci��n en Espa��a, orientados tanto a la superficie forestal como a sus productos derivados. Tratando de ser una herramienta t��cnica, en estos ��ltimos quince a��os, se han ido planteando metodolog��as y propuestas t��cnicas que puedan garantizar el origen sostenible del bosque de donde procede la materia prima. Aunque la persistencia de la masa forestal como t��rmino tiene importancia, no considera numerosos aspectos incluidos en el concepto ���gesti��n forestal sostenible���. El trabajo manifiesta qu�� es y c��mo se origina la Gesti��n Forestal Sostenible y muy ligado con ello, el origen de la certificaci��n como herramienta, explicando c��mo se incardina la certificaci��n forestal espa��ola con las estructuras internacionales y se construyen nuevas estructuras a escala espa��ola y auton��mica. Se expone el dominio y alcance t��cnico de la certificaci��n, sus inicios y un an��lisis de la diversidad de sistemas y etiquetas existentes -como ha ido evolucionando a escala internacional y nacional, por sistemas, sectores y continentes, con especial atenci��n en Espa��a, recopilando lo sucedido relevante para el sector forestal, industrias forestales y sistemas de certificaci��n en los a��os de estudio de elaboraci��n de la tesis. Se refleja la relevancia que adquiere la certificaci��n forestal y de la cadena de custodia para la industria del papel, tanto por las regulaciones, normativas y legislaci��n que involucran al producto derivado del bosque como por ser herramienta que enlaza el bosque sostenible con el consumidor. La aplicaci��n de todas esas especificaciones t��cnicas que muestran la sostenibilidad del bosque y al trazabilidad en el proceso productivo comporta una carga administrativa de recopilaci��n de informaci��n, de control para el seguimiento asociado con los registros necesarios, y de archivo de documentos, conforme a las exigencias que plantean los sistemas de certificaci��n forestal. Por tanto, es importante definir un m��todo y procedimientos gen��ricos para los correspondientes sistemas de gesti��n preexistentes en las empresas del sector de pasta y papel (de calidad/ de medio ambiente/integrados), para implantar un Sistema de Cadena de Custodia gen��rico (com��n a FSC y PEFC) en una instalaci��n de celulosa y papel y un sistema de diligencia debida. Para ello, ha sido necesario analizar la l��nea de producci��n y establecer los puntos de su diagrama en los que se requiere el control de la trazabilidad, puntos en los que se procede al seguimiento y registro de la materia prima, materia semielaborada y producto, y de ah�� proceder a redactar o retocar los procedimientos de gesti��n calidad/ medioambiental, en su caso, para incluir los campos de registro. Seg��n determinen los procedimientos, se efectuar�� un seguimiento y registro de los, derivados que configuran una caracter��stica y se determinar�� una serie de indicadores del sistema de trazabilidad de la madera en la industria de celulosa y papel, es decir, un conjunto de par��metros cuantitativos y descriptivos, sujetos al seguimiento de forma peri��dica, que muestren el cambio y permitan observar la evaluaci��n y control del Sistema de Cadena de Custodia. Adem��s de asegurar la trazabilidad de la madera y fibra en la industria de pasta y papel y con ello la sostenibilidad del bosque del que procede, se avalar�� la legalidad de los aprovechamientos que proporcionan ese recurso maderable, cumpliendo as�� no s��lo la legislaci��n vigente sino tambi��n ambos sistemas de certificaci��n FSC y PEFC. El sistema de cadena de custodia de la pasta y papel se caracteriza por los indicadores de seguimiento que permite el control de la trazabilidad. ABSTRACT This paper traces the origins of the term ���Sustainable Development��� and of both citizen and institutional concern for the sustainability of resources, leading to the enactment of a forestry policy at international level, of which the initial milestones are the Rio Summit and other processes in which the term ���Sustainability��� was born. Those forestfocused institutional initiatives include the pan-European process that led to the publication of Sustainable Forest Management Criteria and Indicators, and other forums that highlight the link between finished wood-based products and the sustainability of the forests from which that wood is sourced. Those concepts were the culture in which forest certification systems were engendered, first FSC, promoted by environmental NGOs, and subsequently PEFC, fostered in response to FSC by private forest owners and forest-based industries. In its Introduction, this paper looks at how such concern arose and has evolved and how certification systems came into existence in Spain and developed to encompass both forest lands and forest-based products. As part of a mission to provide an applicable technical tool, new methodologies and technical proposals have been put forward over the past fifteen years aimed at guaranteeing the sustainable origin of the forest from which raw material is sourced. Although the maintenance of forest stands as a term in its own right is important, it does not take many of the aspects included in the concept of ���sustainable forest management��� into account. This thesis describes what SFM is and how it was born, underlying the close link between SFM and the origin of certification as a tool, explaining how Spanish forest certification is embodied in international structures, while new structures are built here in Spain on both the national and regional scale. This work also details the domain and scope of forest certification from the technical standpoint, explains its beginnings, and assesses the various systems and labels that exist - how certification has evolved internationally and nationally across systems, sectors and continents, with special emphasis on Spain. It provides a compilation of events relevant to forestry, forest industries and forest certification systems that have taken place during the years this thesis has been in preparation. It reflects on the relevance that forest and chain of custody certification holds for the paper industry, in view not only of the regulations, policies and legislation that affect forest-based products but also of its role as a tool that bonds the sustainable forest with the consumer. Implementing the range of technical specifications to demonstrate forest sustainability and traceability throughout the production process entails the administrative burden of collecting information and providing controls to process the relevant records and documents to be kept on file in compliance with the requirements made by forest certification schemes. It is therefore important to define a generic method, together with its relevant procedures,that fits the management systems (quality / environmental / integrated)existing today in pulp and paper companies, in order to implement a generic Chain of Custody scheme (common to FSC and PEFC) in a pulp and paper mill, and a due diligence system. To achieve that, it has first been necessary to analyse the production line and establish points along the route where traceabilitycontrols need to be implemented and points where raw material, semi-finished goods and end products should be monitored and recorded. Subsequently, the procedures in quality / environmental management systems need to be drafted or amended as required to include fields that reflect those records. As required by the procedures, forest-based products that have a specific characteristic shall be monitored and recorded, and a number of indicators identified in the traceability system of wood for pulp & paper, i.e.createa set of quantitative and descriptive parameters subject to regular monitoringthat reveal changes and enable the Chain of Custody system to be assessed and controlled. In addition to ensuring the traceability of wood and fibre in the pulp and paper industry -and so the sustainability of the forest from which it is sourced -, the legality of the harvesting that produces that timber will also be enhanced, thus fulfilling not only the law but also both FSC and PEFC certification schemes. The chain of custody system for pulp and paper is characterised by monitoring indicators that enable traceability to be controlled.

Food market analysis: a case study of the Glocal methodology in the Dominican Republic

The present paper provides an insight into the food value chain of three specific sectors (fruit and vegetables, poultry and rice) in the Dominican Republic. The Glocal methodology used for the study combines a global view with local conditions and thus it can be applied to food markets. Each of these food chains is analyzed by following traditional industrial organization theory, based on structure, conduct and performance. Regarding the specific case of the Dominican Republic, different sources of information are used to analyze the weaknesses of the studied chains, including direct interviews. The food value chains of fruit and vegetables, poultry and rice in the Dominican Republic show a lack of structure and they are undergoing changes; however, they also have great opportunities to improve efficiency by making some changes.

Star dust memories, or how to detect allergen traces in powder foods

Allergies and food intolerances are at the forefront of institutional interest (European Regulation No 1169/2011) for their impact on consumer health. Allergies to peanuts and other nuts and gluten intolerance, makes production processes involving mixtures of powders a great concern for the industry, given the need to indicate the existence of traces of any of them. The food industry requires non-destructive and non-invasive methods of quantification that meet sensitivity requirements but also specificity levels. Optical methods such as NIR spectrophotometry or hyper-spectral image are currently some of the technologies that show potential success. This is the context of this paper that evaluates how to use NIR spectroscopy (900-1600nm) to detect traces of 15 different kinds of nuts and 20 other flours.

Upper Limb Portable Motion Analysis System Based on Inertial Technology for Neurorehabilitation Purposes

Here an inertial sensor-based monitoring system for measuring and analyzing upper limb movements is presented. The final goal is the integration of this motion-tracking device within a portable rehabilitation system for brain injury patients. A set of four inertial sensors mounted on a special garment worn by the patient provides the quaternions representing the patient upper limb���s orientation in space. A kinematic model is built to estimate 3D upper limb motion for accurate therapeutic evaluation. The human upper limb is represented as a kinematic chain of rigid bodies with three joints and six degrees of freedom. Validation of the system has been performed by co-registration of movements with a commercial optoelectronic tracking system. Successful results are shown that exhibit a high correlation among signals provided by both devices and obtained at the Institut Guttmann Neurorehabilitation Hospital.

Problem��tica estructural y de funcionamiento de la cadena de valor del jam��n ib��rico de bellota: el caso de Guijuelo en Espa��a

El sector porcino ib��rico es un sector t��picamente espa��ol. La imagen que asocia el consumidor a los productos ib��ricos es la correspondiente a los productos elaborados a partir de cerdos ib��ricos en explotaciones extensivas, (dehesas), y cebados en montanera. Sin embargo, seg��n los datos publicados por el Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentaci��n y Medio Ambiente, m��s de un 70 por ciento de los cerdos ib��ricos que se producen en Espa��a son criados en granjas intensivas. El sector porcino ib��rico est�� en pleno proceso de cambio, tanto por las variaciones que se derivan de la crisis que sufre el sector, como por las modificaciones que se esperan en la norma de calidad, recientemente acordadas. En este entorno en el que existe una reducci��n importante de los m��rgenes comerciales en todos los eslabones de la cadena de valor del jam��n ib��rico de bellota, adquiere importancia el estudio de su estructura y funcionamiento, la determinaci��n de los aspectos que mejoran la eficiencia econ��mica a lo largo de la misma y su concordancia a lo largo de ella. As�� mismo, un sector de los consumidores comienza a buscar productos de calidad, se interesa por productos con determinados etiquetados que garantizan la calidad o unas determinadas pr��cticas de producci��n y elaboraci��n, como sucede con los productos ecol��gicos. Existen numerosos estudios sobre distintos aspectos del sector porcino ib��rico, realizados por distintas instituciones, como universidades, instituciones privadas y proyectos europeos. En general, se centran en la mejora de la producci��n de los cerdos ib��ricos o en la mejora de la elaboraci��n de los jamones. La novedad de la investigaci��n realizada en la presente Tesis Doctoral reside en el estudio de los aspectos que determinan la mayor eficiencia econ��mica de la cadena de valor del jam��n ib��rico de bellota de la denominaci��n de origen de Guijuelo, y en las caracter��sticas que aporta al jam��n ib��rico de bellota la producci��n ecol��gica frente a la convencional. Resumen Los objetivos planteados en esta investigaci��n son la mejora de la cadena de valor del jam��n ib��rico de bellota de la denominaci��n de origen de Guijuelo, mediante el estudio de la problem��tica estructural y de funcionamiento de la misma. Como objetivos espec��ficos se proponen la mejora de la eficiencia econ��mica en las relaciones comerciales entre los distintos eslabones de la cadena de valor, y el impulso de la oferta de los productos ecol��gicos de ib��rico, mediante el estudio comparativo de las producciones convencionales y ecol��gicas. Para alcanzar estos objetivos la metodolog��a utilizada es la cadena de valor agroalimentaria, utilizando como herramientas de an��lisis el m��todo Delphi y la realizaci��n de un an��lisis DAFO del sector porcino ib��rico. Las fuentes de informaci��n primarias utilizadas proceden por una parte de la colaboraci��n realizada en el proyecto europeo Q-Porkchains, coordinado por el Dr. Jacques H. Trienekens, y por otra parte de los cuestionarios especialmente dise��ados para el an��lisis Delphi realizado. Las fuentes de informaci��n secundarias proceden de art��culos acad��micos publicados, de art��culos de revistas especializadas en el sector y de informes y estad��sticas publicados por el Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentaci��n y Medio Ambiente. Las conclusiones de la investigaci��n son las siguientes. Las relaciones comerciales de la cadena de valor estudiada est��n gestionadas, ya que se otorga gran valor a las relaciones comerciales basadas en la confianza, tanto en el aprovisionamiento de productos como en la venta de los mismos en cada eslab��n. Sin embargo, no se gestiona adecuadamente la gama de productos que se oferta a lo largo de la cadena de valor, puesto que los eslabones de la misma obtienen diferente eficiencia econ��mica para el mismo producto. Por otra parte, aunque la denominaci��n de origen de Guijuelo es una marca conocida por el consumidor, el esfuerzo por tener una marca colectiva de calidad no ha sido totalmente satisfactorio, en especial para el eslab��n de la distribuci��n. Por esta raz��n, es importante resaltar que es recomendable la creaci��n de una marca propia que cuide la calidad con especial atenci��n, modificando incluso las empresas integrantes de la cadena de valor si el objetivo de calidad no coincide. Es importante garantizar la calidad del producto al consumidor, mediante la trasmisi��n la informaci��n generada por los informes de inspecci��n y certificaci��n realizados por las entidades correspondientes en relaci��n a la norma de calidad de los productos de cerdo ib��rico y por el Consejo Regulador de Guijuelo. Se requiere un estudio detallado de los posibles nichos de mercado para llegar a los clientes que buscan un producto de calidad diferenciada como es el jam��n ib��rico de denominaci��n de origen de Guijuelo. Dentro de los posibles clientes debe tenerse en consideraci��n al colectivo de personas al��rgicas, ya que no se encuentran con facilidad en el mercado productos c��rnicos de cerdo libres de al��rgenos. Por ��ltimo, la innovaci��n es muy importante en este sector, y pueden ofertarse nuevos productos que ayuden al acortamiento de la cadena de valor, como podr��a ser la carne fresca de cerdo ib��rico de bellota. La producci��n ecol��gica de porcino ib��rico, en la actualidad no es significativa. El manejo que se realiza de los cerdos ib��ricos convencionales de bellota es muy similar al manejo que se realiza de los cerdos ecol��gicos, salvo en la alimentaci��n que reciben los cerdos ib��ricos antes del cebo en montanera y en los medicamentos permitidos en ambas producciones. La producci��n de porcino ecol��gico de bellota puede ser interesante para la exportaci��n. Los jamones ib��ricos de bellota dispondr��an de un sello que garantiza un manejo tradicional ���como se realiza en muchas explotaciones extensivas de cerdos ib��ricos de bellota-, y que es apreciado por los consumidores de otros pa��ses, dispuestos a pagar por productos de calidad diferenciada. Este tipo de producci��n quiz�� podr��a solventar la limitaci��n al ��mbito nacional de la norma de calidad de los productos de cerdo ib��rico. La falta de claridad y unanimidad en el sector sobre la calidad de los productos de ib��ricos que se percibe en los cambios previstos en la legislaci��n, y el inter��s del eslab��n de la industria elaboradora de jamones en calidades no ligadas a producciones extensivas sino intensivas, por su mayor volumen de ventas y sus mejores rendimientos, mueven a los productores de ���ib��rico puro de bellota��� a desmarcarse del sector ���ib��rico���, donde el peso del producto ib��rico cruzado de pienso tiene mucho peso en las decisiones que se toman. The Iberian pork industry is a typically Spanish industry. The associated image by the consumer to these products corresponds to products made from Iberian pigs in extensive farms (meadows), and fattened in open range. However, according to data released by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Environment, more than 70 percent of the Iberian pigs produced in Spain are raised on factory farms. The Iberian pork industry is in process of change, both by modifications resulting from the crisis in the sector, and the expected ones in the quality standard, recently agreed. In this environment where there is a significant reduction in trade margins in all links of the value chain of Iberian ham, becomes important to study its structure and operation, identifying the aspects that improve economic efficiency along the value chain and their concordance along it. Likewise, part of the consumers begins searching for quality products, they are interested in certain products that guarantee some sort of quality or production and processing practices, like organic products. There are several studies on various aspects of the Iberian pork industry, made by different institutions, such as universities, private institutions and some European projects. In general, their goal is focused on improving the Iberian hog production or on improving the elaboration of hams. The novelty of the research conducted in this PhD thesis lies in the study of the aspects that determine the economic efficiency of the value chain of Iberian ham from Guijuelo designation of origin, and the comparison between the features that organic or conventional production of Iberian ham brings to it. The objectives propound in this research are the improvement of the value chain of Iberian ham from Guijuelo designation of origin, through the study of its structural and operational problematic. The proposed specific objectives are the improvement of the economic efficiency Resumen in trade relations between the different links in the value chain, and the promotion of the supply of Iberian organic pork products, through the comparative study of conventional and organic productions. In order to achieve these objectives, the used methodology is the agrifood value chain, using as analysis tools the Delphi method, and a SWOT analysis of the Iberian pork industry. The primary sources of information come partly from the collaboration in the European project Q-Porkchains, coordinated by Dr. Jacques Trienekens, and partly from the questionnaires specially designed for the Delphi analysis performed. The secondary sources come from published academic papers, specialized journal articles and reports published by the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Environment. The research conclusions are as follows. Trade relations in the studied value chain are managed, as it is granted a great value to business relationships based on trust, both in the supply of products and in the sale in each link. However, the portfolio that is offered throughout the value chain is not properly managed, since the economic efficiency obtained for the same product is different in each link. Moreover, although the designation of origin of Guijuelo is a well-known brand, the effort made to acquire a collective quality trademark has not been entirely satisfactory, especially in the distribution link. Due to it, it is important to highlight that it is recommended to create a brand focused on quality, and indeed to change the firms integrating the vale chain, if the goal is not shared by all the companies. It is essential to ensure the quality of the product to the consumer, through the transmission of the available information related to the quality standard of Iberian pork products and of the Guijuelo Regulating Council. A detailed study of potential niche markets is required, in order to reach customers looking for a differentiated quality product as Iberian ham of Guijuelo designation of origin. It should be taken into consideration the group of allergy sufferers as potential customers, as they do not easily find pork products in the market free of allergens. Innovation is very important in this industry, and new products could be commercialized that help to shorten the value chain, as fresh acorn Iberian pork. Nowadays, the organic production of Iberian pork products is not significant. The operation is very similar in both conventional and organic production of Iberian pork products, except in the food received by Iberian hogs and the sort of medicinal treatments allowed in each production. The organic acorn Iberian pork production could be interesting for export. Acorn Iberian hams would have a well-known hallmark, which guarantees a traditional production, -as it is done in many extensive holdings of Iberian acorn-pigs-, and that is appreciated by consumers in other countries This niche of consumers could pay for differentiated quality products. Perhaps, this sort of production could solve the limitation to national scope of the quality standard of Iberian pork products. The lack of clarity and unanimity in the industry on the quality of Iberian pork products has been perceived in the agreed changes of the legislation as well as the interest of the processing industry in hams of quality categories which are not linked to extensive but intensive productions, due to their higher sales volume and better yields. This situation pushed "acorn pure Iberian " pigs farmers to split from the Iberian industry, where the importance of cross Iberian pig from intensive farms is growing so high that they can influence the negotiations and decisions taken inside and outside the industry.

Estudio metrol��gico de un sensor de impacto no destructivo para la determinaci��n de firmeza de frutas en l��neas de confecci��n.

A non destructive impact sensor to measure fruit firmness has been installed on the sizer chain of an experimental fruit packing line. The sensor measures the fruit firmness related to the acceleration-time curve supplied by an accelerometer attached to an impacting arm. The sensor works correctly at a speed of 5 to 7 fruits per second. Ratio A/t (maximum acceleration value divided by its corresponding time), mean, and maximum slopes of the curves supplied by the accelerometer, were well correlated with the firmness data obtained in laboratory with the load-unload test. The accelerometer signal allows the classification of the fruit in three levels of firmness, by means of a specific software.

Cadena de valor de papas nativas (Solanum andigenum sp.) en la provincia de Jauja, Per��

La Asamblea General de la ONU, a solicitud del gobierno peruano, declara en el a��o 2008 el A��o Internacional de la Papa, (AIP). Desde el a��o 2005, el gobierno peruano ha puesto en marcha estrategias en torno a la importancia de la papa, como la declaraci��n del 30 de Mayo como el D��a Nacional de la Papa. El a��o 2014 es declarado por la FAO, (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), A��o Internacional de la Agricultura Familiar, con un enfoque compartido por esta Tesis Doctoral en el apoyo a la familia campesina peruana. El gobierno peruano utiliza las cadenas de valor como una estrategia de promoci��n de desarrollo sostenible, que ha permitido contribuir a la inclusi��n social y econ��mica de productores pobres de zonas alto andinas, como las localizadas en la mancomunidad municipal del Yacus, (MMY), provincia de Jauja, departamento de Jun��n. Esta estrategia, en la que el mercado incorpora a los peque��os agricultores de las zonas altas de los Andes, (que disponen de recursos econ��micos muy bajos), en procesos productivos rentables, implica una serie de cambios a realizar, como la transformaci��n de los patrones de producci��n tradicional hacia aquellos productos o servicios que tienen demanda en el mercado, o la variaci��n de la mentalidad del agricultor peque��o hacia una concepci��n empresarial de su producci��n. (Fabi��n, 2013). Por otra parte, la sostenibilidad de las cadenas de valor depende del eslab��n m��s d��bil, lo que obliga a conocer la situaci��n de todos los eslabones para poder integrar y reforzar la cadena. Se requiere un sistema de transparencia adecuado que facilite el flujo de la informaci��n entre los distintos eslabones. (Briz et al., 2012). Adem��s, el establecimiento de la cadena de valor debe hacerse con cuidado, ya que la eficacia y supervivencia de las empresas est��n cada vez m��s ligadas a la cadena de valor a la que pertenece y a la coordinaci��n de la misma. (Briz, 2011). En esta situaci��n, adquiere importancia el estudio de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa, para una vez establecidas sus caracter��sticas, poder determinar la viabilidad o no de una cadena de valor de este producto que repercuta parte de la riqueza generada en los peque��os agricultores alto andinos, e incluso, de su extensi��n hasta Espa��a. Existen estudios sobre las papas nativas, realizadas por diferentes universidades de distintos pa��ses, e incluso, de diferentes continentes. Sin embargo, la mayor��a de los estudios se centran en la mejora de la producci��n de la papa nativa. La novedad de la investigaci��n realizada en la presente Tesis Doctoral radica en el estudio de la viabilidad de la comercializaci��n de la papa nativa, mediante el establecimiento de una cadena de valor que se inicie en la provincia de Jauja, Per��, y finalice tanto en los mercados peruanos de las regiones de Jun��n y Lima, como en Espa��a. El objetivo planteado en esta investigaci��n es la mejora de las condiciones econ��micas y sociales de las comunidades agr��colas de la provincia de Jauja en el Per��, as�� como fomentar su desarrollo tecnol��gico e industrial, mediante el fomento de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa y sus derivados. Se establecen como objetivos espec��ficos la caracterizaci��n de los eslabones de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa y sus derivados en la provincia de Jauja del Per�� y en Espa��a, de manera que se determine el valor agregado en los mismos; el fortalecimiento de las organizaciones de productores de papas nativas para la comercializaci��n de sus producciones y para el fomento de la cultura empresarial; y el desarrollo de una cadena de comercializaci��n papas nativas y sus derivados con origen en la Provincia de Jauja, Per��, y que finalice en Espa��a, con la venta al consumidor espa��ol. Para alcanzar estos objetivos la metodolog��a utilizada es la cadena de valor agroalimentaria, utilizando como herramientas de an��lisis el an��lisis DAFO de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa. Las fuentes de informaci��n primarias utilizadas proceden en parte del proyecto de cooperaci��n de UPM, ���Mejora de la cadena de valor de la patata andina como impulso al desarrollo rural. Caso de tres Comunidades Campesinas en la Provincia de Jauja del Per�����, en el que particip�� el doctorando, y en parte proceden de la bater��a de encuestas espec��ficamente dise��adas para los diferentes eslabones de la cadena de valor de la papa nativa. Las fuentes de informaci��n secundarias proceden de art��culos acad��micos publicados, de art��culos publicados por revistas especializadas del sector y de informes realizados por diferentes instituciones gubernamentales, tanto espa��olas como peruanas. Las conclusiones de la investigaci��n son las siguientes. La creaci��n de la mancomunidad del Yacus ha beneficiado a los peque��os agricultores. Estos consiguen mejores condiciones de venta y mejores precios para sus productos, lo que repercute en la mejora de sus condiciones de vida. Estas mejoras en las condiciones de venta de los productos se deben a su pertenencia a una cadena de valor de papa nativa que est�� funcionando de forma eficaz. Las empresas consideradas para constituir la cadena de valor han mostrado inter��s por formar parte de ella: los campesinos para obtener mejores precios por sus productos y unas mejores condiciones de venta; los distribuidores para asegurarse una calidad determinada de unas variedades fijas de papa nativa; la industria transformadora por disponer de un suministro de producto adecuado al derivado de papa nativa correspondiente, (hojuelas, tunta, etc.); las empresas exportadoras para tener suministro garantizado de los productos que ellos requieren en los vol��menes adecuados. Es una situaci��n ventajosa para todas las empresas participantes. A pesar de trabajar con un producto tradicional, la cadena de valor de la papa nativa presenta innovaci��n en los productos comercializados, tanto en la papa nativa fresca como en sus derivados, en los formatos de los productos, en la red de distribuci��n, en las instituciones peruanas y en el consumidor final. Se percibe una demanda de papa nativa y de sus productos derivados en aquellos pa��ses donde existen comunidades de latinoamericanos que han emigrado de sus pa��ses de origen. Espa��a est�� entre los pa��ses que han acogido a un importante n��mero de personas de origen latinoamericano. A pesar de la fuerte crisis econ��mica sufrida por Espa��a, que ha llevado consigo la vuelta a sus pa��ses de origen de parte de su comunidad latinoamericana, el tama��o de esta poblaci��n sigue siendo importante. Esta poblaci��n demanda productos originarios de sus propios pa��ses, y los consumir��an de forma frecuente si los precios son adecuados a su capacidad de consumo. El precio de venta de la papa nativa y sus derivados en Espa��a es de gran importancia. La importaci��n de estos productos desde Per�� hace que este eleve a niveles que le resta competitividad, en especial en la papa fresca. Se aconseja la b��squeda de empresas que puedan adaptar la producci��n de la papa fresca de forma local, y mantener para los derivados la exportaci��n directa a Espa��a. Las preferencias de los consumidores peruanos y espa��oles en cuanto a formatos y marcas se refieren no son coincidentes. De las encuestas realizadas, se concluye que no puede seguirse la misma estrategia de marketing en ambos pa��ses, debi��ndose diferenciar los formatos de los paquetes de la papa nativa y de sus derivados en Espa��a y en Per��, para as�� lograr llegar a los consumidores potenciales de ambos pa��ses. ABSTRACT At the request of the Peruvian government, the UN General Assembly declared the International Year of the Potato in 2008. Since 2005, the Peruvian government has implemented strategies around the importance of the potato, as the declaration of the 30th of May as the National Day of the Potato. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) has declared 2014 as the International Year of Family Farming, with an approach shared by this Ph.D. dissertation about the Peruvian peasant family. The Peruvian government uses value chains as a strategy to promote sustainable development, which has allowed to contribute to the social and economic inclusion of poor farmers in the high Andean regions as those located in the municipal commonwealth of Yacus (MMY) province of Jauja, department of Jun��n. This strategy, which incorporates small farmers in the high Andean regions, (who have very low income), to the market with profitable production processes, implies a number of changes that should take place, such as changing patterns of traditional production to those products or services that are in demand in the market, or changes in the mentality of the small farmer into a concept of production business. (Fabi��n, 2013). Moreover, the sustainability of value chains depends on the weakest link, which demands a knowledge of the status of all the links, in order to integrate and strengthen the chain. It is required an adequate transparency to facilitate the flow of information between the various actors. (Briz et al., 2012). Furthermore, the establishment of the value chain should be done carefully, since the effectiveness and the survival of the businesses are increasingly linked to the value chain where the firm is included and to its coordination. (Briz, 2011). In this situation, it becomes important to study the value chain of the native potato, once we establish its features, to be able to determine the feasibility or not of a value chain of this product, which has an impact of the generated wealth in small farms of the high Andean regions, and even the extension of this value chain to Spain. There are studies on native potatoes, made by different universities in several countries and even in more than one continent. However, most studies focus on improving the production of native potato. The originality of the research conducted in this Ph.D. dissertation is the study of the feasibility of commercialization of native potato, by the creation of a value chain that starts in the province of Jauja, Per��, and ends both in Peruvian markets in the region of Lima, and in Spain. The main goal of this research is to improve the economic and social conditions of farming communities in the province of Jauja in Per��, while promoting its technological and industrial development, by the establishment of a value chain of the native potato and derivatives. The specific objectives of the research are the characterization of the links in the value chain of the native potato and its derivatives in the province of Jauja, (Per��) and in Spain, in order to determine the added value; the strengthening of organizations of native potato producers, to commercialize their products and the promotion of enterprise culture; and the development of a chain to market native potato and its derivatives, with its origin in the province of Jauja, (Per��), and its end in Spain, with the sale to the Spanish consumer. In order to achieve these objectives, the used methodology is the agrifood value chain, using as a tool to analysis it the SWOT analysis of the value chain of the native potato. The primary sources of information used in the research come partly from UPM cooperation project, "Improving the value chain of Andean potato as a boost to rural development. Case Three Rural Communities in the Province of Jauja, (Per��)", in which the Ph.D. student was involved, and partly from the surveys, which were specifically designed for the different links of the value chain of the native potato. The secondary sources of information come from academic articles, from articles published by magazines of the industry, and from reports of several government institutions, both Spanish and Peruvian. The conclusions of the research are as follows. The creation of the commonwealth of Yacus has benefited small farmers. They get better sales conditions and better prices for their products, which results in the improvement of their living conditions. These improvements are due to a value chain of native potato which is working effectively. All the firms invited to constitute the value chain have shown interest in being part of it: the farmers to get better prices for their products and better sale conditions; the distributors to ensure a certain quality of fixed varieties of native potato, the processing industry in order to have an adequate supply of product to the corresponding derivative of native potato (chips, ���tunta���, etc.); exporting firms to have a guaranteed supply of the products that they require with the right volumes. It's a win-win situation for all participating companies. Despite being a traditional product, the value chain of the native potato presents innovation in marketed products, (both fresh native potato and its derivatives), in the formats of products, in the distribution network, in Peruvian institutions and in relation with the consumer. There is a perceived demand of native potato and its products in countries where communities of Latin Americans have settled down. Spain is among the countries that have received a significant number of people from Latin America. Despite the strong economic crisis suffered by Spain, which has lead to a return to their home countries of part of the Latin American community, the size of this population is still considerable. This population demands products from their own countries, and they frequently consume them if the prices are suitable to their standard of living. The selling price of the native potato and its derivatives in Spain is of great importance. The import of these products from Per�� makes the prices rise to levels that reduce competitiveness, especially in fresh native potatoes. It is advised to look for companies which can adapt the fresh potato production in our country, and keep direct export to Spain for the derivatives products. The preferences of Peruvian and Spanish consumers in terms of formats and brands are not the same. The surveys concluded that the same marketing strategy cannot be followed in both countries. Packet formats of native potato and its derivatives should be differentiated in Spain and Per��, in order to reach the potential consumers of both countries.

Human Factor in Resilience Systems

This paper shows the importance of a holistic comprehension of the Earth as a living planet, where man inhabits and is exposed to environmental incidences of different nature. The aim of the paper here summarized is a reflection on all these concepts and scientific considerations related to the important role of men in the handling of natural hazards. Our Planet is an unstable and dynamical system highly sensitive to initial conditions, as proposed by Chaos theory (Gonz��lez-Miranda 2004); it is a complex organic whole, which responds to minimal variations which can affect several natural phenomena such as plate tectonics, solar flares, fluid turbulences, landscape formation, forest fires, growth and migration of populations and biological evolution. This is known as the ���butterfly effect��� (Lorenz 1972), which means that a small change of the system causes a chain of events leading to large-scale unpredictable consequences. The aim of this work is dwelling on the importance of the knowledge of these natural and catastrophic geological, biological and human systems so much sensible to equilibrium conditions, to prevent, avoid and mend their effects, and to face them in a resilient way

Compatibilidad del principio de ��ptimo de Bellman con los m��todos secuenciales de optimizaci��n de redes de tuber��as

En el proceso de c��lculo de redes de tuber��as se maneja un conjunto de variables con unas caracter��sticas muy peculiares, ya que son discretas y estandarizadas. Por lo tanto su evoluci��n se produce por escalones (la presi��n nominal, el di��metro y el costo de los tubos). Por otro lado la presi��n de dise��o de la red es una funci��n directa de la presi��n de cabecera. En el proceso de optimizaci��n mediante programaci��n din��mica la presi��n de cabecera se va reduciendo gradualmente en cada secuencia del proceso, haciendo que evolucione a la par la presi��n de dise��o, lo que genera a su vez saltos discriminados en la presi��n nominal de los tramos, y con ello en su costo y en su gradiente de cambio. En esta tesis doctoral se analiza si estos cambios discriminados que se producen en el gradiente de cambio de algunos tramos en el curso de una secuencia, ocasionados por la evoluci��n de la presi��n de cabecera de la red, generan interferencias que alteran el proceso secuencial de la programaci��n din��mica. La modificaci��n del gradiente de cambio durante el transcurso de una secuencia se conoce con el nombre de mutaci��n, la cual puede ser activa cuando involucra a un tramo optimo modificando las condiciones de la transacci��n o pasiva si no crea afecci��n alguna. En el an��lisis realizado se distingue entre la mutaci��n del gradiente de cambio de los tramos ��ptimos (que puede generarse exclusivamente en el conjunto de los trayectos que los albergan), y entre los efectos que el cambio de timbraje produce en el resto de los tramos de la red (incluso los situados aguas abajo de los nudos con holgura de presi��n nula) sobre el mecanismo iterativo, estudiando la compatibilidad de este fen��meno con el principio de ��ptimo de Bellman. En el proceso de investigaci��n llevado a cabo se destaca la fortaleza que da al proceso secuencial del m��todo Granados el hecho de que el gradiente de cambio siempre sea creciente en el avance hacia el ��ptimo, es decir que el costo marginal de la reducci��n de las p��rdidas de carga de la red que se consigue en una iteraci��n siempre sea m��s caro que el de la iteraci��n precedente. Asimismo, en el estudio realizado se revisan los condicionantes impuestos al proceso de optimizaci��n, incluyendo algunos que hasta ahora no se han tenido en cuenta en los estudios de investigaci��n, pero que est��n totalmente integrados en la ingenier��a pr��ctica, como es la disposici��n telesc��pica de las redes (reordenaci��n de los di��metros de mayor a menor de cabeza a cola de la red), y la disposici��n de un ��nico di��metro por tramo, en lugar de que est��n compartidos por dos di��metros contiguos (con sus salvedades en caso de tramos de gran longitud, o en otras situaciones muy espec��ficas). Finalmente se incluye un cap��tulo con las conclusiones, aportaciones y recomendaciones, las cuales se consideran de gran utilidad para la ingenier��a pr��ctica, entre las que se destaca la perfecci��n del m��todo secuencial, la escasa transcendencia de las mutaciones del gradiente de cambio y la forma en que pueden obviarse, la inocuidad de las mutaciones pasivas y el cumplimiento del principio de Bellman en todo el proceso de optimizaci��n. The sizing process of a water distribution network is based on several variables, being some of them special, as they are discrete and their values are standardized: pipe pressure rating, pipe diameter and pipe cost. On another note, the sizing process is directly related with the pressure at the network head. Given that during the optimization by means of the Granados��� Method (based on dynamic programming) the pressure at the network head is being gradually reduced, a jump from one pipe pressure rating to another may arise during the sequential process, leading to changes on the pipe cost and on the gradient change (unitary cost for reducing the head losses). This chain of changes may, in turn, affect the sequential process diverting it from an optimal policies path. This thesis analyses how the abovementioned alterations could influence the results of the dynamic programming algorithm, that is to say the compatibility with the Bellman���s Principle of Optimality, which states that the sequence has to follow a route of optimal policies, and that past decisions should not influence the remaining ones. The modification of the gradient change is known as mutation. Mutations are active when they affect the optimal link (the one which was selected to be changed during iteration) or passive when they do not alter the selection of the optimal link. The thesis analysed the potential mutations processes along the network, both on the optimal paths and also on the rest of the network, and its influence on the final results. Moreover, the investigation analysed the practical restrictions of the sizing process that are fully integrated in the applied engineering, but not always taken into account by the optimization tools. As the telescopic distribution of the diameters (i.e. larger diameters are placed at the network head) and the use of a unique diameter per link (with the exception of very large links, where two consecutive diameters may be placed). Conclusions regarding robustness of the dynamic programming algorithm are given. The sequence of the Granados Method is quite robust and it has been shown capable to auto-correct the mutations that could arise during the optimization process, and to achieve an optimal distribution even when the Bellman���s Principle of Optimality is not fully accomplished. The fact that the gradient change is always increasing during the optimization (that is to say, the marginal cost of reducing head losses is always increasing), provides robustness to the algorithm, as looping are avoided in the optimization sequence. Additionally, insight into the causes of the mutation process is provided and practical rules to avoid it are given, improving the current definition and utilization of the Granados��� Method.

Investigaci��n sobre tratamientos de aguas seguros en emergencias

Esta Tesis Doctoral tiene como principal objetivo el obtener una cadena de tratamientos seguros de aguas seriados que nos permita asegurar la calidad de las aguas para consumo humano en caso de emergencias, de tal forma que se minimicen los efectos de acciones hostiles, como sabotajes o actos terroristas, desastres naturales, etc y buscar soluciones adecuadas para garantizar en este caso la salud. Las plantas de tratamientos de aguas existentes comercialmente no aseguran dicha calidad y la documentaci��n sobre el tema presenta vac��os de conocimiento, contradicciones entre resultados de investigaciones o insostenibilidad de conclusiones de las mismas. Estas carencias nos permiten determinar los aspectos a tratar durante la investigaci��n. Por ello, este objetivo se concret�� en tres acciones: Investigar sobre rendimientos de plantas convencionales en eliminaci��n de microorganismos y productos t��xicos y peligrosos. Introducir mejoras que garanticen el rendimiento de las plantas convencionales. Investigar sobre la conveniencia de complementar las instalaciones existentes buscando seguridad y garant��a sanitaria. Y se desarrollaron tres l��neas de investigaci��n: LI 1 ���Inorg��nicos���: Investigaci��n sobre la eliminaci��n de los metales boro, cobre y molibdeno mediante procesos de intercambio i��nico y de coagulaci��nfloculaci��n- decantaci��n. LI 2 ���Compuestos Org��nicos Vol��tiles���: Investigaci��n sobre la eliminaci��n de los compuestos org��nicos 1,1 dicloroetano, 1,2 dicloroetano, clorobenceno, 1,3 dicloropropeno y hexacloro 1,3 butadieno mediante procesos de carb��n activo granular y de oxidaci��n avanzada. LI 3 ���Plantas port��tiles���: Investigaci��n sobre plantas existentes port��tiles para verificar su rendimiento te��rico y proponer mejoras. Estas l��neas de investigaci��n se desarrollaron tanto en el nivel te��rico como en el emp��rico, bien sea en laboratorio como en campo. A lo largo del documento se demuestra que las principales fuentes de contaminaci��n, salvo la degradaci��n de yacimientos naturales, proceden de la actividad humana (efluentes industriales y agr��colas, aguas residuales y actividades beligerantes) que provocan un amplio espectro de enfermedades por lo que dificultan tanto la definici��n de la fuente como la anticipada detecci��n de la enfermedad. Las principales conclusiones que se obtuvieron est��n relacionadas con el rendimiento de eliminaci��n de los par��metros tras la aplicaci��n de los procesos y plantas de tratamiento de aguas anteriormente rese��adas. Sin embargo, el verdadero elemento designador de originalidad de esta Tesis Doctoral, tal como se ha rese��ado arriba, radica en la definici��n de un sistema seriado de procesos de tratamiento de aguas que asegura la calidad en caso de emergencia. ��ste se define en el siguiente orden: pretratamiento, oxidaci��n, coagulaci��n-floculaci��n-decantaci��n, filtraci��n por arena, intercambio i��nico, carb��n activo granular, microfiltraci��n, radiaci��n UV, ��smosis inversa, radiaci��n UV y cloraci��n final. The main objective of this Thesis is to obtain a chain of stepwise safe water treatments that allow us to ensure the quality of water for human consumption in case of emergencies, so that the effects of hostile actions, such as sabotage or terrorism, natural disasters, etc. and seek appropriate solutions in this case to ensure health. The existing commercial water treatment plants do not ensure quality, and the documentation on the subject presents knowledge gaps or contradictions. These gaps allow us to determine the issues to be discussed during the investigation. Therefore, this objective was manifested in three actions: Researching yields in commercial plants and microorganisms, or toxic and dangerous products removal. Improvements to ensure the performance of conventional plants. Inquire about the advisability of implementing existing facilities for safety and health guarantee. And three lines of research are developed: LI 1 ���Inorganic elements���: Research removing metals iron, copper and molybdenum by ion exchange processes and coagulation-flocculation-decantation. LI 2 ���Volatile Organic Compounds���: Research removing organic compounds 1,1 dichloroethane, 1,2 dichloroethane, chlorobenzene, 1,3-dichloropropene and 1,3-butadiene hexachloro through processes of granular activated carbon and advanced oxidation. LI 3 ���Compact Water Treatment Plants���: Research on existing packaged plants to verify theoretical performance and suggest improvements. These lines of research are developed both theoretically and empirically, both in the laboratory and in the field. Throughout the document, it is evident that the main sources of pollution, other than the degradation of natural deposits, come from human activity (industrial and agricultural effluents, sewage and belligerent activities) which cause a broad spectrum of diseases which hamper both the definition of the source and the early detection of the disease. The main conclusions drawn are related to both the removal efficiency parameters after application of processes and treatment plants outlined above water. However, the real designator of originality of this thesis, such as outlined above, lies in the definition of a serial system water treatment processes assuring quality in case of emergency. This is defined in the following order: pretreatment, oxidation, coagulation-flocculation-sedimentation, sand filtration, ion exchange, granular activated carbon, microfiltration, UV radiation, reverse osmosis, UV radiation and final chlorination.

Valorizaci��n energ��tica de biomasas en el marco de la pol��tica energ��tica espa��ola. Incentivos econ��mico-financieros y pol��ticos, aportaci��n de valor a��adido y prospectiva estrat��gica de desarrollo

El modelo econ��mico actual basado en el consumo y en la b��squeda permanente de una mayor calidad de vida, unido a una poblaci��n mundial en aumento, contribuye a incrementar la demanda de servicios energ��ticos para cubrir las necesidades de energ��a de las personas y las industrias. Desde finales del siglo XIX la energ��a se ha generado fundamentalmente a partir de combustibles f��siles (carb��n, petr��leo y gas), convertidos en el suministro energ��tico predominante mundialmente. Las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero que genera la prestaci��n de servicios energ��ticos han contribuido considerablemente al aumento hist��rico de las concentraciones de esos gases en la atm��sfera, hasta el punto de que el consumo de combustibles f��siles es responsable de la mayor��a de las emisiones antropog��nicas (IPCC, 2012). Existen diversas opciones para disminuir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero del sector energ��tico y con ello contribuir a mitigar el cambio clim��tico, entre otras ser��a viable aumentar la eficiencia energ��tica y sustituir combustibles de origen f��sil por combustibles de origen renovable, pudiendo garantizar un suministro de energ��a sostenible, competitivo y seguro. De todas las energ��as renovables susceptibles de formar parte de una cartera de opciones de mitigaci��n, esta tesis se centra en la bioenerg��a generada a partir de la valorizaci��n energ��tica de las biomasas agr��colas, forestales, ganaderas o de otro tipo, con fines el��ctricos y t��rmicos. Con objeto de mostrar su capacidad para contribuir a mitigar el cambio clim��tico y su potencial contribuci��n al desarrollo socioecon��mico, a la generaci��n de energ��a distribuida y a reducir determinados efectos negativos sobre el medio ambiente, se ha analizado minuciosamente el sector espa��ol de la biomasa en su conjunto. Desde el recurso biom��sico que existe en Espa��a, las formas de extraerlo y procesarlo, las tecnolog��as de valorizaci��n energ��tica, sus usos energ��ticos principales y la capacidad de implementaci��n del sector en Espa��a. Asimismo se ha examinado el contexto energ��tico tanto internacional y europeo como nacional, y se han analizado pormenorizadamente los instrumentos de soporte que han contribuido de manera directa e indirecta al desarrollo del sector en Espa��a. Adem��s, la tesis integra el an��lisis de los resultados obtenidos mediante dos metodolog��as diferentes con fines tambi��n distintos. Por un lado se han obtenido los resultados medioambientales y socioecon��micos de los an��lisis de ciclo de vida input-output generados a partir de las cinco tecnolog��as biom��sicas m��s ampliamente utilizadas en Espa��a. Y por otro lado, en base a los objetivos energ��ticos y medioambientales establecidos, se han obtenido distintas proyecciones de la implementaci��n del sector a medio plazo, en forma de escenarios energ��ticos con horizonte 2035, mediante el modelo TIMES-Spain. La tesis ofrece tambi��n una serie de conclusiones y recomendaciones que podr��an resultar pertinentes para los agentes que constituyen la cadena de valor del propio sector e interesados, as�� como para la formulaci��n de pol��ticas y mecanismos de apoyo para los agentes decisores, tanto del ��mbito de la Administraci��n General del Estado como auton��mico y regional, sobre las caracter��sticas y ventajas de determinadas formas de valorizaci��n, sobre los efectos sociales y medioambientales que induce su uso, y sobre la capacidad de sector para contribuir a determinadas pol��ticas m��s all�� de las puramente energ��ticas. En todo caso, esta tesis doctoral aspira a contribuir a la toma de decisiones id��neas tanto a los agentes del sector como a responsables p��blicos, con objeto de adoptar medidas orientadas a fomentar modificaciones del sistema energ��tico que incrementen la proporci��n de energ��a renovable y, de esta forma, contribuir a mitigar la amenaza que supone el cambio clim��tico no solo en la actualidad, sino especialmente en los pr��ximos a��os para las generaciones venideras. ABSTRACT The current economic model based on both, consumption and the constant search for greater quality of life, coupled with a growing world population, contribute to increase the demand for energy services in order to meet the energy needs of people and industries. Since the late nineteenth century, energy has been basically generated from fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas), which converted fossil fuels into the predominant World energy supply source. Emissions of greenhouse gases generated by the provision of energy services have contributed significantly to the historical increase in the concentrations of these gases in the atmosphere, to the extent that the consumption of fossil fuels is responsible for most of the anthropogenic emissions (IPCC, 2012). There are several options to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases in the energy sector and, thereby, to contribute to mitigate climate change. Among others, would be feasible to increase energy efficiency and progressively replacing fossil fuels by renewable fuels, which are able to ensure a sustainable, competitive and secure energy supply. Of all the renewable energies likely to form part of a portfolio of mitigation options, this thesis focuses on bioenergy generated from agricultural, forestry, farming or other kind of biomass, with electrical and thermal purposes. In order to show their ability to contribute to mitigate climate change and its potential contribution to socio-economic development, distributed energy generation and to reduce certain negative effects on the environment, the Spanish biomass sector as a whole has been dissected. From the types of biomass resources that exist in Spain, ways of extracting and processing them, energy production technologies, its main energy uses and the implementation capacity of the sector in Spain. It has also examined the international, European and national energy context, and has thoroughly analyzed the support instruments that have contributed directly and indirectly to the development of the sector in Spain, so far. Furthermore, the thesis integrates the analysis of results obtained using two different methodologies also with different purposes. On the one hand, the environmental and socio-economic results of the analysis of input-output cycle life generated from the five biomass technologies most widely used in Spain, have been obtained. On the other hand, different projections of the implementation of the sector in the medium term, as energy scenarios with horizon 2035, have been obtained by the model TIMES-Spain, based on several energy and environmental objectives. The thesis also offers a series of conclusions and recommendations that could be relevant to the agents that constitute the value chain of the biomass sector itself and other stakeholders. As well as policy and support mechanisms for decision-makers, from both: The Central and Regional Governments, on the characteristics and advantages of certain forms of valorization, on the social and environmental effects that induce their use, and the ability of the biomass sector to contribute to certain policies beyond the purely energy ones. In any case, this thesis aims to contribute to decision making, suitable for both: Industry players and to public officials. In order to adopt measures to promote significant changes in the energy system that increase the proportion of renewable energy and, consequently, that contribute to mitigate the threat of climate change; not only today but in the coming years, especially for future generations.

Evoluci��n de los sistemas t��cnicos de reproducci��n musical

Con el fin de analizar la caracterizaci��n del proceso de evoluci��n de los sistemas t��cnicos de reproducci��n musical se han planteado dos v��as principales de an��lisis: en primer lugar, el estudio de las caracter��sticas t��cnicas de cuatro sistemas de reproducci��n que se han considerado representativos de dicho avance (sistemas basados en disco de vinilo, casete compacto, disco compacto y formato de codificaci��n perceptual) y, en segundo lugar, el funcionamiento de dichos sistemas dentro del concepto que se ha denominado como cadena de transmisi��n de informaci��n de tipo musical. A trav��s de la evaluaci��n del grado de evoluci��n de cada sistema y de su posterior comparaci��n se proceder�� a realizar dicha caracterizaci��n. Para ello se tendr��n en cuenta factores objetivos como, por ejemplo, la calidad de la se��al de audio pero tambi��n cualitativos como, por ejemplo, la portabilidad que pueda proporcionar un tipo de sistema u otro. Por otra parte, se plantea un segundo objetivo que es actualizar la definici��n de reproductor, si as�� se desprende de los an��lisis, con la aparici��n de reproductores basados en codificaci��n perceptual. ABSTRACT. In order to analyze the characterization of the process of evolution of technical systems of music playback considered two main ways of analysis: first, the study of the technical characteristics of four playback systems that have been considered representative of the advance (based on vinyl, compact cassette, compact disc and perceptual formats coding systems) and, second, the operation of these systems within the concept that has been called chain of information transmission of music. Through the evaluation of the degree of development of each system and its subsequent comparison will proceed to make such characterization. For this objective kept in mind factors such as the quality of the audio signal but also qualitative, for example, portability that can provide a particular device type will be considered. Moreover, a second objective is to update the definition of the player, if it is apparent from the analysis, with the appearance of players based on perceptual coding arises.