Importance of canopy porosity into vineyard and the relationship with the grape maturity. Digital estimation method

In warm and dry climates, the use of porous systems should be required in order to allow a better leaf distribution inside the plant, causing more space in the clusters area and enhancing determined physiological processes so in the leaf (photosynthesis, v entilation, transpiration) as in berry (growth and maturation). Plant geometry indexes, yield and must composition have been studied in three different systems: sprawl with 12 shoots/m (S1); sprawl system with 18 shoots/m (S2) and vertical positioned syste m or VSP with 12 shoots/m (VSP1). Total leaf area increases as the crop load does, whoever surface area depends on to two factors: crop load and the training system (VSP vs. sprawl), which can provide differences in leaf exposure efficiencies. The main objective of this study was to validate digital photography measurements used to compare porosity differences among treatments and, as they affect plant microclimate and, therefore, yield and berry quality. Also, all previous studied indexes (LAI, SA, SFEr) tended to overestimate the relationship between exposed leaf surface and porosity of each treatment, but the use of digital method proved to be an effective tool in order to assess canopy porosity. Results showed that not positioned and free systems (sprawl) scored between 25- 50% more porosity in the clusters area than the fixed vertical system (VSP), which resulted in a better plant microclimate for test conditions, mainly by improving the exposure of internal clusters and internal canopy ventilation. On the other hand, higher crop load treatment (S2) showed a real increase in yield (16%) without any relevant change into must composition, even improving total anthocyanin content into berry during ripening

Importance of canopy porosity into vineyard and the relationship with the grape maturity. Digital estimation method

In warm and dry climates, the use of porous systems should be required in order to allow a better leaf distribution inside the plant, causing more space in the clusters area and enhancing determined physiological processes so in the leaf (photosynthesis, ventilation, transpiration) as in berry (growth and maturation). Plant geometry indexes, yield and must composition have been studied in three different systems: sprawl with 12 shoots/m (S1); sprawl system with 18 shoots/m (S2) and vertical positioned system or VSP with 12 shoots/m (VSP1). Total leaf area increases as the crop load does, whoever surface area depends on to two factors: crop load and the training system (VSP vs . sprawl), which can provide differences in leaf exposure efficiencies. The main objective of this study was to validate digital photography measurements used to compare porosity differences among treatments and, as they affect plant microclimate and, therefore, yield and berry quality. Also, all previous studied indexes (LAI, SA, SFEr) tended to overestimate the relationship between exposed leaf surface and porosity of each treatment, but the use of digital method proved to be an effective tool in order to assess canopy porosity. Results showed that not positioned and free systems (sprawl) scored between 25 - 50% more porosity in the clusters area than the fixed vertical system (VSP), which resulted in a better plant microclimate for test conditions, mainly by improving the exposure of internal clusters and internal canopy ventilation. On the other hand, higher crop load treatment (S2) showed a real increase in yield (16%) without any relevant change into must composition, even improving total anthocyanin content into berry during ripening

Characterization of vineyard's canopy through fuzzy clustering and svm over color images

In this work we propose an image acquisition and processing methodology (framework) developed for performance in-field grapes and leaves detection and quantification, based on a six step methodology: 1) image segmentation through Fuzzy C-Means with Gustafson Kessel (FCM-GK) clustering; 2) obtaining of FCM-GK outputs (centroids) for acting as seeding for K-Means clustering; 3) Identification of the clusters generated by K-Means using a Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier. 4) Performance of morphological operations over the grapes and leaves clusters in order to fill holes and to eliminate small pixels clusters; 5)Creation of a mosaic image by Scale-Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) in order to avoid overlapping between images; 6) Calculation of the areas of leaves and grapes and finding of the centroids in the grape bunches. Image data are collected using a colour camera fixed to a mobile platform. This platform was developed to give a stabilized surface to guarantee that the images were acquired parallel to de vineyard rows. In this way, the platform avoids the distortion of the images that lead to poor estimation of the areas. Our preliminary results are promissory, although they still have shown that it is necessary to implement a camera stabilization system to avoid undesired camera movements, and also a parallel processing procedure in order to speed up the mosaicking process.

Canopy fruit location can affect olive oil quality in Arbequina hedgerow orchards

The effect of location of fruit in canopies of hedgerow olive trees (Olea europaea L., cv. ���Arbequina���) on quality of virgin oil was tested by analyzing oils extracted from different height layers and faces of 9 olive hedgerows (6 North-South oriented and 3 East-West). Although sensory attributes were not different other oil quality parameters may be significantly modified by fruit position. In some hedgerows, oils extracted from fruits harvested from higher layers exhibited significantly higher stability against oxidation, along with higher palmitic acid, linoleic acid and phenol contents, but lower oleic acid content. Oils extracted from fruits harvested from East and North facing hedgerows oriented North-South and East-West, respectively, exhibited higher oleic contents and lower saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acid contents. The mean phenol content of oils extracted from fruits from a North-South oriented hedgerow was significantly greater from one of the East-West oriented hedgerows. These findings may be relevant for the design of future olive hedgerows destined for olive oil production.

A bacterial cysteine protease effector protein interferes with photosynthesis to suppress plant innate immune responses

The bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000 suppresses plant innate immunity with effector proteins injected by a type III secretion system (T3SS). The cysteine protease effector HopN1, which reduces the ability of DC3000 to elicit programmed cell death in non-host tobacco, was found to also suppress the production of defence-associated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and callose when delivered by Pseudomonas fluorescens heterologously expressing a P. syringae T3SS. Purified His 6 -tagged HopN1 was used to identify tomato PsbQ, a member of the oxygen evolving complex of photosystem II (PSII), as an interacting protein. HopN1 localized to chloroplasts and both degraded PsbQ and inhibited PSII activity in chloroplast preparations, whereas a HopN1 D299A non-catalytic mutant lost these abilities. Gene silencing of NtPsbQ in tobacco compromised ROS production and programmed cell death.

Canopy fruit location can affect olive oil quality in Arbequina hedgerow orchards.

En este trabajo se recogieron muestras de aceituna procedente de distintas alturas de setos cultivados en diferentes condiciones para evaluar el efecto en la calidad del aceite.

Canopy fruit location can affect olive oil quality in Arbequina hedgerow orchards.

The effect of location of fruit in canopies of hedgerow olive trees (Olea europaea L., cv. ���Arbequina���) on quality of virgin oil was tested by analyzing oils extracted from different height layers and faces of nine olive hedgerows (6 North���South oriented and 3 East��� West). Although sensory attributes were not different, other oil quality parameters may be significantly modified by fruit position. Oils extracted from fruits harvested from higher layers exhibited significantly higher stability against oxidation, along with higher palmitic acid, linoleic acid and phenol contents, but lower oleic acid content. Oils extracted from fruits harvested from East and North facing hedgerows oriented North���South and East���West, respectively, exhibited higher oleic contents and lower saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acid contents. The mean phenol content of oils extracted from fruits from a North���South oriented hedgerow was significantly greater from one of the East���West oriented hedgerows. These findings may be relevant for the design of future olive hedgerows destined for olive oil production.

Assessment of watercore development in apples with MRI: Effect offruit location in the canopy

tWatercore distribution inside apple fruit (block or radial), and its incidence (% of tissue) were relatedto the effect of solar radiation inside the canopy as measured by a set of low-cost irradiation sensors.221 samples were harvested in two seasons from the top and the bottom of the canopy and submittedto the non-invasive and non-destructive technique of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in order toobtain 20 inner tomography slices from each fruit and analyze the damaged areas using an interactive3D segmentation method. The number of fruit corresponding to each type of damage and the relevantpercentage were calculated and it was found that apples from the top of the tree were mainly of the radialtype (84%) and had more watercore (approx. 5% more) than apples from the bottom (65% radial). From theimage segmentation, the Euler number, a morphometric parameter, was extracted from the segmentedimages and related to the type of watercore symptoms. Apples with block watercore were grouped inEuler numbers between ���400 and 400 with a small evolution. For apples with radial development, theEuler number was highly negative: up to ���1439. Significant differences were also found regarding sugarcomposition, with higher fructose and total sugar contents in apples from the upper canopy, compared tothose in the lower canopy location. In the seasons studied (2011 and 2012), significantly higher sorbitoland lower sucrose and fructose contents were found in watercore-affected tissue compared to the healthytissue of affected apples and also compared to healthy apples.

Conductancia del mes��filo en especies forestales: implicaciones en la respuesta fotosint��tica a la disponibilidad de agua y luz

La fotos��ntesis es el proceso biol��gico que permite la producci��n primaria y, por tanto, la vida en nuestro planeta. La tasa fotosint��tica viene determinada por la ���maquinaria��� bioqu��mica y las resistencias difusivas al paso del CO2 desde la atm��sfera hasta su fijaci��n en el interior de los cloroplastos. Hist��ricamente la mayor resistencia difusiva se ha atribuido al cierre estom��tico, sin embargo ahora sabemos, debido a las mejoras en las t��cnicas experimentales, que existe tambi��n una resistencia grande que se opone a la difusi��n del CO2 desde los espacios intercelulares a los lugares de carboxilaci��n. Esta resistencia, llamada normalmente por su inversa: la conductancia del mes��filo (gm), puede ser igual o incluso superior a la resistencia debida por el cierre estom��tico. En la presente tesis doctoral he caracterizado la limitaci��n que ejerce la resistencia del mes��filo a la fijaci��n de CO2 en diversas especies forestales y en distintos momentos de su ciclo biol��gico. En la fase de regenerado, hemos estudiado tres situaciones ambientales relevantes en el mayor ��xito de su supervivencia, que son: el d��ficit h��drico, su interacci��n con la irradiancia y el paso del crecimiento en la sombra a mayor irradiancia, como puede suceder tras la apertura de un hueco en el dosel forestal. En la fase de arbolado adulto se ha caracterizado el estado h��drico y el intercambio gaseoso en hojas desarrolladas a distinta irradiancia dentro del dosel vegetal durante tres a��os contrastados en pluviometr��a. Para cada tipo de estudio se han empleado las t��cnicas ecofisiol��gicas m��s pertinentes para evaluar el estado h��drico y el intercambio gaseoso. Por su complejidad y la falta de un m��todo que permita su cuantificaci��n directa, la gm ha sido evaluada por los m��todos m��s usados, que son: la discriminaci��n isot��pica del carbono 13, el m��todo de la J variable, el m��todo de la J constante y el m��todo de la curvatura. Los resultados m��s significativos permiten concluir que la limitaci��n relativa a la fotos��ntesis por la conductancia estom��tica, del mes��filo y bioqu��mica es dependiente de la localizaci��n de la hoja en el dosel forestal. Por primera vez se ha documentado que bajo estr��s h��drico las hojas desarrolladas a la sombra estuvieron m��s limitadas por una reducci��n en la gm, mientras que las hojas desarrolladas a pleno sol estuvieron m��s limitadas por reducci��n mayor de la conductancia estom��tica (gsw). Encontramos buena conexi��n entre el aparato fotosint��tico foliar y el sistema h��drico debido al alto grado de correlaci��n entre la conductancia hidr��ulica foliar aparente y la concentraci��n de CO2 en los cloroplastos en distintas especies forestales. Adem��s, hemos mostrado diferentes pautas de regulaci��n del intercambio gaseoso seg��n las particularidades ecol��gicas de las especies estudiadas. Tanto en brinzales crecidos de forma natural y en el arbolado adulto como en pl��ntulas cultivadas en el invernadero la ontogenia afect�� a las limitaciones de la fotos��ntesis producidas por estr��s h��drico, resultando que las limitaciones estom��ticas fueron dominantes en hojas m��s j��venes mientras que las no estom��ticas en hojas m��s maduras. La puesta en luz supuso un gran descenso en la gm durante los d��as siguientes a la transferencia, siendo este efecto mayor seg��n el grado de sombreo previo en el que se han desarrollado las hojas. La aclimataci��n de las hojas a la alta irradiancia estuvo ligada a las modificaciones anat��micas foliares y al estado de desarrollo de la hoja. El ratio entre la gm/gsw determin�� la mayor eficiencia en el uso del agua y un menor estado oxidativo durante la fase de estr��s h��drico y su posterior rehidrataci��n, lo cual sugiere el uso de este ratio en los programas de mejora gen��tica frente al estr��s h��drico. Debido a que la mayor��a de modelos de estimaci��n de la producci��n primaria bruta (GPP) de un ecosistema no incluye la gm, los mismos est��n incurriendo en una sobreestimaci��n del GPP particularmente bajo condiciones de estr��s h��drico, porque m��s de la mitad de la reducci��n en fotos��ntesis en hojas desarrolladas a la sombra se debe a la reducci��n en gm. Finalmente se presenta un an��lisis de la importancia en las estimas de la gm bajo estr��s h��drico de la refijaci��n del CO2 emitido en la mitocondria a consecuencia de la fotorrespiraci��n y la respiraci��n mitocondrial en luz. ABSTRACT Photosynthesis is the biological process that supports primary production and, therefore, life on our planet. Rates of photosynthesis are determined by biochemical ���machinery��� and the diffusive resistance to the transfer of CO2 from the atmosphere to the place of fixation within the chloroplasts. Historically the largest diffusive resistance was attributed to the stomata, although we now know via improvements in experimental techniques that there is also a large resistance from sub-stomatal cavities to sites of carboxylation. This resistance, commonly quantified as mesophyll conductance (gm), can be as large or even larger than that due to stomatal resistance. In the present PhD I have characterized the limitation exerted by the mesophyll resistance to CO2 fixation in different forest species at different stages of their life cycle. In seedlings, we studied three environmental conditions that affect plant fitness, namely, water deficit, the interaction of water deficit with irradiance, and the transfer of plants grown in the shade to higher irradiance as can occur when a gap opens in the forest canopy. At the stage of mature trees we characterized water status and gas exchange in leaves developed at different irradiance within the canopy over the course of three years that had contrasting rainfall. For each study we used the most relevant ecophysiological techniques to quantify water relations and gas exchange. Due to its complexity and the lack of a method that allows direct quantification, gm was estimated by the most commonly used methods which are: carbon isotope discrimination, the J-variable, constant J and the curvature method The most significant results suggest that the relative limitation of photosynthesis by stomata, mesophyll and biochemistry depending on the position of the leaf within the canopy. For the first time it was documented that under water stress shaded leaves were more limited by a reduction in gm, while the sun-adapted leaves were more limited by stomatal conductance (gsw). The connection between leaf photosynthetic apparatus and the hydraulic system was shown by the good correlations found between the apparent leaf hydraulic conductance and the CO2 concentration in the chloroplasts in shade- and sun-adapted leaves of several tree species. In addition, we have revealed different patterns of gas exchange regulation according to the functional ecology of the species studied. In field grown trees and greenhouse-grown seedlings ontogeny affected limitations of photosynthesis due to water stress with stomatal limitations dominating in young leaves and nonstomatal limitations in older leaves. The transfer to high light resulted in major decrease of gm during the days following the transfer and this effect was greater as higher was the shade which leaves were developed. Acclimation to high light was linked to the leaf anatomical changes and the state of leaf development. The ratio between the gm/gsw determined the greater efficiency in water use and reduced the oxidative stress during the water stress and subsequent rehydration, suggesting the use of this ratio in breeding programs aiming to increase avoidance of water stress. Because most models to estimate gross primary production (GPP) of an ecosystem do not include gm, they are incurring an overestimation of GPP particularly under conditions of water stress because more than half of An decrease in shade-developed leaves may be due to reduction in gm. Finally, we present an analysis of the importance of how estimates of gm under water stress are affected by the refixation of CO2 that is emitted from mitochondria via photorespiration and mitochondrial respiration in light.

Implications of the mesophyll conductance to CO2 for photosynthesis and water-use efficiency during long-term water stress and recovery in two contrasting Eucalyptu species

Water stress (WS) slows growth and photosynthesis (An), but most knowledge comes from short-time studies that do not account for longer term acclimation processes that are especially relevant in tree species. Using two Eucalyptus species that contrast in drought tolerance, we induced moderate and severe water deficits by withholding water until stomatal conductance (gsw) decreased to two pre-defined values for 24 d, WS was maintained at the target gsw for 29 d and then plants were re-watered. Additionally, we developed new equations to simulate the effect on mesophyll conductance (gm) of accounting for the resistance to refixation of CO2. The diffusive limitations to CO2, dominated by the stomata, were the most important constraints to An. Full recovery of An was reached after re-watering, characterized by quick recovery of gm and even higher biochemical capacity, in contrast to the slower recovery of gsw. The acclimation to long-term WS led to decreased mesophyll and biochemical limitations, in contrast to studies in which stress was imposed more rapidly. Finally, we provide evidence that higher gm under WS contributes to higher intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) and reduces the leaf oxidative stress, highlighting the importance of gm as a target for breeding/genetic engineering.

Estudio de los efectos en el vi��edo de la modificaci��n del d��ficit h��drico continuo en los periodos anterior y posterior al envero (cv. Cabernet Sauvignon; Vitis vinifera L.)

En regiones semi��ridas, con veranos c��lidos, evapotranspiraciones elevadas, humedades relativas bajas, adem��s de precipitaciones intermitentes y escasas (400 mm al a��o) que reducen la recarga del perfil en invierno, se puede ver afectada la productividad y sostenibilidad de los vi��edos. Por eso en estas zonas puede ser necesario utilizar el riego suplementario para mantener la calidad y aumentar la productividad. En este marco de circunstancias es en el que se desarrolla la mayor��a de la viticultura espa��ola, y en concreto en la zona centro donde se realiz�� el estudio. Con este trabajo se pretende estudiar la influencia del agua del riego, con distintas dosis y aplicada en diferentes fases de crecimiento y maduraci��n de la baya, en la producci��n y calidad de la uva. Se estudi�� la influencia del d��ficit moderado continuo aplicado antes y despu��s de envero, en el aprovechamiento de los recursos ambientales y en la respuesta del cv. Cabernet Sauvignon. El ensayo se desarroll�� en 2010 y 2011 en la finca ���La Alcoholera���, perteneciente a bodegas LICINIA S.L., ubicada en la localidad de Chinch��n, Comunidad de Madrid, Espa��a. Durante 2010 y 2011 se realizaron estudios en cepas del cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (clon 15), injertadas sobre 41B y plantadas en 2005. Con poda corta en Cord��n Royat unilateral de 80 cm de altura, y cuya vegetaci��n alcanz�� una altura de 97 cm. Las cepas del ensayo fueron conducidas verticalmente en espaldera (VSP), con 10 yemas por metro lineal. Las plantas dentro de la fila fueron separadas 1 m y la distancia de la calle fue de 3 m. La orientaci��n de las filas norte ��� sur. Se plantearon cuatro tratamientos experimentales con diferentes dosis y momento de aplicaci��n del riego. - T: Testigo. D��ficit ligero, con un aporte continuado de agua desde floraci��n (420 mm). - DMc: D��ficit moderado continuo. Manejo del riego convencional, empezando en pre-envero (154 mm) - DM1: D��ficit moderado a partir de pre-envero. Aporte de riego continuado desde floraci��n reduci��ndose la dosis de riego en pre-envero (312 mm). - DM2: D��ficit moderado hasta pre-envero. Se empez�� a regar a partir de preenvero (230 mm). Se observ�� que bajo condiciones de estr��s h��drico leve, el crecimiento se reduce disminuyendo la migraci��n de fotoasimilados hacia los ��rganos vegetativos. Generando menor ��rea foliar en las plantas sometidas a d��ficit h��drico moderado entre floraci��n y cuajado. Disminuyendo su consumo. En maduraci��n la humedad del suelo dependi�� principalmente del riego aplicado y del consumo de la planta; dicho consumo dependi�� a la vez del desarrollo foliar del canopy y de la necesidad h��drica de la vid. El aumento del d��ficit h��drico disminuy�� el contenido de agua en el suelo, lo que provoc�� diferencias en el estado h��drico y en el intercambio gaseoso de las hojas. En condiciones de d��ficit moderado, la fotos��ntesis se encontr�� altamente correlacionada con el potencial h��drico foliar medido a mediod��a solar. Adem��s en condiciones de d��ficit moderado continuo la disponibilidad h��drica, la demanda atmosf��rica y el nivel de hidrataci��n de las hojas, interaccionaron de forma compleja en la regulaci��n estom��tica de las hojas, condicionando el intercambio gaseoso y la eficiencia en el uso del agua. Al aumentar el volumen de agua aplicado el peso de madera de poda por metro de fila fue superior. Las diferencias encontradas en el rendimiento fueron debidas a las diferencias en el peso de baya. El cual estuvo condicionado por la estrategia de riego, ya que, el d��ficit h��drico moderado antes de envero fue m��s cr��tico para el rendimiento que el d��ficit impuesto durante la madurez. Por otro lado, la biomasa dependi�� de la actividad fisiol��gica de la planta, la cual fue altamente dependiente de la disponibilidad h��drica. D��ficit h��drico moderado aplicado de cuajado a envero, gener�� bayas m��s peque��as y aument�� la relaci��n hollejo:pulpa. El d��ficit moderado aplicado despu��s de envero favoreci�� la acumulaci��n de IPT y antocianos extra��bles, mejorando la calidad de la uva, pero disminuy�� la acidez de la baya. El riego aplicado de envero a vendimia desaceler�� la concentraci��n de az��cares en bayas que fueron sometidas a d��ficit antes de pre-envero. ABSTRACT Mediterranean climate is characterized by hot summers, high evapotranspiration rates, and scarce precipitations (400 mm per year) during grapevine cycle. These extremely dry conditions affect vineyard productivity and sustainability. Supplementary irrigation is needed practice in order to maintain yield and quality. Almost all Spanish grape growing regions are characterized by these conditions, especially in the center region, where this trial was performed. The main objective of this work is to study the influence of water irrigation on yield and quality. For this aim, different levels of irrigation (mm of water applied) were applied during different stages of growth and berry maturity of Caberent Sauvignon grapevines. The work was conducted from 2010 to 2011 and located in Licinia (40�� 12�� N, 3�� 28�� W), Madrid, Spain. The cultivar utilized was Cabernet Sauvignon, clone 15 grafted onto rootstock 41B, planted in 2005. The vineyard was oriented north-south, with spacing on 3 meters between rows and 1 meter between plants. Vines were spurpruned to 10 buds per meter and trained in unilateral cordon with a height of 80 cm. Shoots were positioned vertically (VSP). Considering the amount of water and the moment of the application, four experimental treatments were applied: - T: Control sample. Slight deficit (420 mm) applied from bloom to maturity. - DMc: Continuous moderate deficit. Traditional irrigation: application of 154 mm of water from pre-veraison to maturity. - DM1: Deficit moderate from pre-veraison. Irrigation of 312 mm of water from bloom to pre-veraison. - DM2: Deficit moderate to pre-veraison. Irrigation of 230 mm of water from preveraison to maturity Under moderated water stress conditions it was seen than leaf growth decreases due to the reduction of migration of photo-assimilates to vegetative organs. Vines with moderate water deficit between flowering and ripening develop less leaf area and decrease its water consumption. During maturation of berries, soil moisture depends on irrigation and plant consumption. This consumption further depends on vegetation development and on the vine needs for water. By increasing water deficit, the water content in the soil decreases. This causes differences in leaf water status and in the gases exchange. Under moderate deficit conditions, photosynthesis was found highly correlated with midday leaf water potential. Further, atmospheric demand and the level of leaves hydration interact in complex ways in the stomatal regulation, which affects leaf gas exchange and the efficiency of water use. The amount of water applied is directly proportional to pruning weight. Changes in berry weight cause differences in yield ratios. The differences in berry weights are conditioned by the irrigation strategy, the moderate water deficit before veraison influences more than the deficit applied from veraison. Biomass generated for the plant depends on its physiological activity, which is highly related to the water availability. Moderate water deficit applied from fruit set to ripening generates smaller berries, increasing the pulp/skin ratio. Moderate deficit applied after veraison promotes the accumulation of extractables anthocyans and TPI. Despite this treatment improves color parameters of the grapes, it decreases its total acidity. Irrigation applied from veraison to harvest slows down sugar accumulation in berries compared to those under deficit before veraison conditions.

A study on the inclusion of forest canopy morphology data in numerical simulations for the purpose of wind resource assessment

A series of numerical simulations of the flow over a forest stand have been conducted using two different turbulence closure models along with various levels of canopy morphology data. Simulations have been validated against Stereoscopic Particle Image Velocimetry measurements from a wind tunnel study using one hundred architectural model trees, the porosities of which have been assessed using a photographic technique. It has been found that an accurate assessment of the porosity of the canopy, and specifically the variability with height, improves simulation quality regardless of the turbulence closure model used or the level of canopy geometry included. The observed flow field and recovery of the wake is in line with characteristic canopy flows published in the literature and it was found that the shear stress transport turbulence model was best able to capture this detail numerically.