Modelling the Impact of Built Environment, Geographical Scales and Latent Constructs On Individual Travel Behaviour

La relaci��n entre la estructura urbana y la movilidad ha sido estudiada desde hace m��s de 70 a��os. El entorno urbano incluye m��ltiples dimensiones como por ejemplo: la estructura urbana, los usos de suelo, la distribuci��n de instalaciones diversas (comercios, escuelas y zonas de restauraci��n, parking, etc.). Al realizar una revisi��n de la literatura existente en este contexto, se encuentran distintos an��lisis, metodolog��as, escalas geogr��ficas y dimensiones, tanto de la movilidad como de la estructura urbana. En este sentido, se trata de una relaci��n muy estudiada pero muy compleja, sobre la que no existe hasta el momento un consenso sobre qu�� dimensi��n del entorno urbano influye sobre qu�� dimensi��n de la movilidad, y cu��l es la manera apropiada de representar esta relaci��n. Con el prop��sito de contestar estas preguntas investigaci��n, la presente tesis tiene los siguientes objetivos generales: (1) Contribuir al mejor entendimiento de la compleja relaci��n estructura urbana y movilidad. y (2) Entender el rol de los atributos latentes en la relaci��n entorno urbano y movilidad. El objetivo espec��fico de la tesis es analizar la influencia del entorno urbano sobre dos dimensiones de la movilidad: n��mero de viajes y tipo de tour. Vista la complejidad de la relaci��n entorno urbano y movilidad, se pretende contribuir al mejor entendimiento de la relaci��n a trav��s de la utilizaci��n de 3 escalas geogr��ficas de las variables y del an��lisis de la influencia de efectos inobservados en la movilidad. Para el an��lisis se utiliza una base de datos conformada por tres tipos de datos: (1) Una encuesta de movilidad realizada durante los a��os 2006 y 2007. Se obtuvo un total de 943 encuestas, en 3 barrios de Madrid: Chamber��, Pozuelo y Algete. (2) Informaci��n municipal del Instituto Nacional de Estad��stica: dicha informaci��n se encuentra enlazada con los or��genes y destinos de los viajes recogidos en la encuesta. Y (3) Informaci��n georeferenciada en Arc-GIS de los hogares participantes en la encuesta: la base de datos contiene informaci��n respecto a la estructura de las calles, localizaci��n de escuelas, parking, centros m��dicos y lugares de restauraci��n. Se analiz�� la correlaci��n entre e intra-grupos y se modelizaron 4 casos de atributos bajo la estructura ordinal logit. Posteriormente se eval��a la auto-selecci��n a trav��s de la estimaci��n conjunta de las elecciones de tipo de barrio y n��mero de viajes. La elecci��n del tipo de barrio consta de 3 alternativas: CBD, Urban y Suburban, seg��n la zona de residencia recogida en las encuestas. Mientras que la elecci��n del n��mero de viajes consta de 4 categor��as ordinales: 0 viajes, 1-2 viajes, 3-4 viajes y 5 o m��s viajes. A partir de la mejor especificaci��n del modelo ordinal logit. Se desarroll�� un modelo joint mixed-ordinal conjunto. Los resultados indican que las variables ex��genas requieren un an��lisis exhaustivo de correlaciones con el fin de evitar resultados sesgados. ha determinado que es importante medir los atributos del BE donde se realiza el viaje, pero tambi��n la informaci��n municipal es muy explicativa de la movilidad individual. Por tanto, la percepci��n de las zonas de destino a nivel municipal es considerada importante. En el contexto de la Auto-selecci��n (self-selection) es importante modelizar conjuntamente las decisiones. La Auto-selecci��n existe, puesto que los par��metros estimados conjuntamente son significativos. Sin embargo, s��lo ciertos atributos del entorno urbano son igualmente importantes sobre la elecci��n de la zona de residencia y frecuencia de viajes. Para analizar la Propensi��n al Viaje, se desarroll�� un modelo h��brido, formado por: una variable latente, un indicador y un modelo de elecci��n discreta. La variable latente se denomina ���Propensi��n al Viaje���, cuyo indicador en ecuaci��n de medida es el n��mero de viajes; la elecci��n discreta es el tipo de tour. El modelo de elecci��n consiste en 5 alternativas, seg��n la jerarqu��a de actividades establecida en la tesis: HOME, no realiza viajes durante el d��a de estudio, HWH tour cuya actividad principal es el trabajo o estudios, y no se realizan paradas intermedias; HWHs tour si el individuo reaiza paradas intermedias; HOH tour cuya actividad principal es distinta a trabajo y estudios, y no se realizan paradas intermedias; HOHs donde se realizan paradas intermedias. Para llegar a la mejor especificaci��n del modelo, se realiz�� un trabajo importante considerando diferentes estructuras de modelos y tres tipos de estimaciones. De tal manera, se obtuvieron par��metros consistentes y eficientes. Los resultados muestran que la modelizaci��n de los tours, representa una ventaja sobre la modelizaci��n de los viajes, puesto que supera las limitaciones de espacio y tiempo, enlazando los viajes realizados por la misma persona en el d��a de estudio. La propensi��n al viaje (PT) existe y es espec��fica para cada tipo de tour. Los par��metros estimados en el modelo h��brido resultaron significativos y distintos para cada alternativa de tipo de tour. Por ��ltimo, en la tesis se verifica que los modelos h��bridos representan una mejora sobre los modelos tradicionales de elecci��n discreta, dando como resultado par��metros consistentes y m��s robustos. En cuanto a pol��ticas de transporte, se ha demostrado que los atributos del entorno urbano son m��s importantes que los LOS (Level of Service) en la generaci��n de tours multi-etapas. la presente tesis representa el primer an��lisis emp��rico de la relaci��n entre los tipos de tours y la propensi��n al viaje. El concepto Propensity to Travel ha sido desarrollado exclusivamente para la tesis. Igualmente, el desarrollo de un modelo conjunto RC-Number of trips basado en tres escalas de medida representa innovaci��n en cuanto a la comparaci��n de las escalas geogr��ficas, que no hab��a sido hecha en la modelizaci��n de la self-selection. The relationship between built environment (BE) and travel behaviour (TB) has been studied in a number of cases, using several methods - aggregate and disaggregate approaches - and different focuses ��� trip frequency, automobile use, and vehicle miles travelled and so on. Definitely, travel is generated by the need to undertake activities and obtain services, and there is a general consensus that urban components affect TB. However researches are still needed to better understand which components of the travel behaviour are affected most and by which of the urban components. In order to fill the gap in the research, the present dissertation faced two main objectives: (1) To contribute to the better understanding of the relationship between travel demand and urban environment. And (2) To develop an econometric model for estimating travel demand with urban environment attributes. With this purpose, the present thesis faced an exhaustive research and computation of land-use variables in order to find the best representation of BE for modelling trip frequency. In particular two empirical analyses are carried out: 1. Estimation of three dimensions of travel demand using dimensions of urban environment. We compare different travel dimensions and geographical scales, and we measure self-selection contribution following the joint models. 2. Develop a hybrid model, integrated latent variable and discrete choice model. The implementation of hybrid models is new in the analysis of land-use and travel behaviour. BE and TB explicitly interact and allow richness information about a specific individual decision process For all empirical analysis is used a data-base from a survey conducted in 2006 and 2007 in Madrid. Spatial attributes describing neighbourhood environment are derived from different data sources: National Institute of Statistics-INE (Administrative: municipality and district) and GIS (circular units). INE provides raw data for such spatial units as: municipality and district. The construction of census units is trivial as the census bureau provides tables that readily define districts and municipalities. The construction of circular units requires us to determine the radius and associate the spatial information to our households. The first empirical part analyzes trip frequency by applying an ordered logit model. In this part is studied the effect of socio-economic, transport and land use characteristics on two travel dimensions: trip frequency and type of tour. In particular the land use is defined in terms of type of neighbourhoods and types of dwellers. Three neighbourhood representations are explored, and described three for constructing neighbourhood attributes. In particular administrative units are examined to represent neighbourhood and circular ��� unit representation. Ordered logit models are applied, while ordinal logit models are well-known, an intensive work for constructing a spatial attributes was carried out. On the other hand, the second empirical analysis consists of the development of an innovative econometric model that considers a latent variable called ���propensity to travel���, and choice model is the choice of type of tour. The first two specifications of ordinal models help to estimate this latent variable. The latent variable is unobserved but the manifestation is called ���indicators���, then the probability of choosing an alternative of tour is conditional to the probability of latent variable and type of tour. Since latent variable is unknown we fit the integral over its distribution. Four ���sets of best variables��� are specified, following the specification obtained from the correlation analysis. The results evidence that the relative importance of SE variables versus BE variables depends on how BE variables are measured. We found that each of these three spatial scales has its intangible qualities and drawbacks. Spatial scales play an important role on predicting travel demand due to the variability in measures at trip origin/destinations within the same administrative unit (municipality, district and so on). Larger units will produce less variation in data; but it does not affect certain variables, such as public transport supply, that are more significant at municipality level. By contrast, land-use measures are more efficient at district level. Self-selection in this context, is weak. Thus, the influence of BE attributes is true. The results of the hybrid model show that unobserved factors affect the choice of tour complexity. The latent variable used in this model is propensity to travel that is explained by socioeconomic aspects and neighbourhood attributes. The results show that neighbourhood attributes have indeed a significant impact on the choice of the type of tours either directly and through the propensity to travel. The propensity to travel has a different impact depending on the structure of each tour and increases the probability of choosing more complex tours, such as tours with many intermediate stops. The integration of choice and latent variable model shows that omitting important perception and attitudes leads to inconsistent estimates. The results also indicate that goodness of fit improves by adding the latent variable in both sequential and simultaneous estimation. There are significant differences in the sensitivity to the latent variable across alternatives. In general, as expected, the hybrid models show a major improvement into the goodness of fit of the model, compared to a classical discrete choice model that does not incorporate latent effects. The integrated model leads to a more detailed analysis of the behavioural process. Summarizing, the effect that built environment characteristics on trip frequency studied is deeply analyzed. In particular we tried to better understand how land use characteristics can be defined and measured and which of these measures do have really an impact on trip frequency. We also tried to test the superiority of HCM on this field. We can concluded that HCM shows a major improvement into the goodness of fit of the model, compared to classical discrete choice model that does not incorporate latent effects. And consequently, the application of HCM shows the importance of LV on the decision of tour complexity. People are more elastic to built environment attributes than level of services. Thus, policy implications must take place to develop more mixed areas, work-places in combination with commercial retails.

Urban built environment analysis: evidence from a mobility survey in Madrid

Applications involving travel behavior from the perspective of land use are dating from the 1990s. Usually, four important components are distinguished: density, diversity and design (3D?s of Cervero and Kockelman) and accessibility (introduced by Geurs and van Wee). But there is not a general agreement on how to measure each of those 4 components. Density is used to be measured as population and employment densities, but others authors separate population density between residential and building densities. A lot of measures have been developed to estimate diversity: among others, a dissimilarity index to indicate the degree to which different land uses lie within one another?s surrounding, an entropy index to quantify the degree of balance across various land use types or proximities to commercial-retail uses. Design has been characterized by site design, and dwelling and street characteristics. Lastly, accessibility has become a frequently used concept, but its meaning on travel behavior field always refers to the ability ?to reach activities or locations by means of a travel mode?, measured as accessibility to jobs, to leisure activities, and others. Furthermore, the previous evidence is mainly based on US data or on north European countries. Therefore, this paper adds some new evidence from a Spanish perspective to the research debate. Through a Madrid smartphone-based survey, factor analysis is used to linearly combine variables into the 3D?s and accessibility dimensions of the built environment. At a first step for future investigations, land use variables will be treated to define accurately the previous 4 components.

Towards an Active Design. An Approach on the Body Interaction with the Built Environment.

El impacto de la tecnolog��a en el ambiente construido y en las actividades en ��l desarrolladas, es una de las causas de la progresiva sedentarizaci��n de la especie humana. Desde un enfoque que analiza la interacci��n del cuerpo con la arquitectura, a trav��s de distintas referencias en escalas diversas, esta investigaci��n intenta establecer la relaci��n entre la evoluci��n del ambiente pasivo y la sedentarizaci��n, proponiendo frente a un espacio mecanizado y digitalizado que disminuye la actividad f��sica humana, la b��squeda de nuevos tipos de espacios arquitect��nicos que promuevan el movimiento repercutiendo en el bienestar y la salud. Esta tesis estudia por tanto el impacto de la tecnolog��a en el espacio, intentando aproximarse a estrategias que disminuyan el efecto pasivo y estimulen la actividad motora. Estas propuestas abarcan tanto la ciudad, como la edificaci��n y el propio espacio dom��stico afectando a los sistemas de circulaci��n, a la configuraci��n espacial y sobre todo a la incorporaci��n de ���espacios activos���, en donde se contempla la posibilidad de un uso alternativo de la tecnolog��a como un elemento positivo.

Modelling the relationship between urban environment and travel behaviour: policy and indicators

Due to the necessity to undertake activities, every year people increase their standards of travelling (distance and time). Urban sprawl development plays an important role in these "enlargements". Thus, governments invest money in an exhaustiva search for solutions to high levels of congestion and car-trips. The complex relationship between urban environment and travel behaviour has been studied in a number of cases. Thus, the objective of this paper is to answer the important question of which land-use attributes influence which dimensions of travel behaviour, and to verify to what extent specific urban planning measures affect the individual decision process, by exhaustiva statistical and systematic tests. This paper found that a crucial issue in the analysis of the relationship between the built environment and travel behaviour is the definition of indicators. As such, we recommend a feasible list of indicators to analyze this relationship.

Architectural design and construction costs, tools towards territorial sustainability

This paper is presented in CIB: Management and Innovation Sustainable Built Environment 2011, as the study and analysis of the residential model of a rural area from the Iberian Peninsula, specifically applied to the case of the province of C��ceres, in the autonomous region of Extremadura, in Spain. To this end, from a database made up of building projects whose real costs are known, it is intended to establish the links of the different parameters studied through the corresponding functions of statistical analysis. One of the main objectives of this process is constituted by the possibility of establishing those design variables of higher economic importance, so as to keep an economic control of these parameters, generally geometrical and typological, from the very start of the project. And, in general, a higher optimization of resources in the construction of dwellings in the rural environment from their design is intended.

Evoluci��n y crisis de la regi��n metropolitana de Madrid 1985-2007. An��lisis de las diversas perspectivas para la transformaci��n del gobierno urbano: una revisi��n cr��tica del planeamiento

La Regi��n Metropolitana de Madrid (RMM) ha sufrido una gran transformaci��n urbana en el periodo 1985-2007, en el cual ha crecido la poblaci��n, ha crecido fuertemente el cuerpo f��sico, pero sobre todo han crecido su coste y su consumo, lo que supone que se ha vuelto m��s insostenible. Para tratar de comprender esta evoluci��n asim��trica se ensayan sucesivos modelos que tratan de explicar la transformaci��n de la realidad a trav��s de la articulaci��n de las formas de poder y sus pol��ticas asociadas dentro del contexto local-metropolitano. Si se compara la transformaci��n urbana en el periodo 1985-2007 respecto a la registrada durante el desarrollismo previo al presente periodo democr��tico, se encuentran similitudes, como el amplio consumo de suelo, pero el modelo desarrollista se inscribe en otras l��gicas y tiene otros par��metros de contexto y es congruente ya que las ��ltimas d��cadas del R��gimen Franquista se caracterizan por un important��simo aumento poblacional que se correspond��a con el fuerte crecimiento industrial de la RMM. Esa congruencia relativa se pierde en el periodo estudiado, a pesar de que en 1985, se aprueba el Plan General de Ordenaci��n Urbana de Madrid centrado en la ciudad existente y con un crecimiento contenido, y que puede considerarse un modelo abortado. Tras numerosas transformaciones pol��ticas, econ��micas, sociales y urban��sticas se llega a una situaci��n opuesta a la prevista en el citado Plan. M��s de veinte a��os despu��s, en 2007, se presentan no solo s��ntomas de agotamiento del modelo finalmente adoptado, sino su quiebra dram��tica tanto en su dimensi��n inmobiliario-financiera como del espacio del bienestar. Es precisamente la supresi��n de los mecanismos de regulaci��n lo que ha caracterizado la evoluci��n de los modelos urbanos, en correspondencia con la desregulaci��n de las actividades econ��micas y de los flujos de capital propios del modelo "neoliberal". La actual crisis financiera internacional, en especial en algunos pa��ses perif��ricos europeos como Espa��a, ha demostrado c��mo las pol��ticas econ��micas que se han llevado a cabo, fuera de toda regulaci��n, han resultado insostenibles. Pero no se trata solo de una crisis econ��mica. En el caso espa��ol, de todas las dimensiones de la crisis, destaca la dimensi��n urbana, o el auge y ca��da del ciclo inmobiliario, debido a la urbanizaci��n intensiva del territorio en relaci��n con el circuito secundario de la acumulaci��n capitalista, habiendo tenido especial incidencia en algunos territorios como la RMM. En la Regi��n Metropolitana de Madrid la situaci��n actual es de crisis urbana, causada principalmente por el divorcio entre las necesidades y la producci��n de ciudad, pues no se ha basado el crecimiento en la creaci��n de nuevos hogares, u otras cuestiones demogr��ficas, sino en la acumulaci��n de capital a trav��s del crecimiento de la ciudad. Adem��s, dicho crecimiento est�� conformado por una expansi��n urbana descontrolada, con mayores requerimientos energ��ticos que el modelo compacto y complejo tradicional, lo que unido a la escala de los procesos, supone un sistema urbano progresivamente ineficiente. El caso de la RMM resulta paradigm��tico, ya que la regi��n ha desempe��ado un papel como laboratorio de nuevas formas de gobierno y planificaci��n que han dado un mayor protagonismo al espacio, que ha entrado en las din��micas centrales principalmente por el apoyo al crecimiento f��sico, a la vez que han confluido circunstancias espec��ficas, como un nuevo impulso al centralismo, lo que ha potenciado ciertas pol��ticas, como considerar la ciudad como motor de crecimiento econ��mico y de competitividad en el concierto europeo y mundial de ciudades. El estudio del papel de la planificaci��n y sus crisis en la sucesi��n de los modelos, muestra su funci��n nuclear en la propia constituci��n de estos ���es parte fundamental de su aparato de regulaci��n��� y su valor no solo para poder entender el periodo, sino para poder proyectar otro futuro urbano. Este enfoque conduce a establecer la relaci��n del planeamiento con las diferentes crisis econ��micas en el periodo de estudio lo que permite diferenciar tres momentos de dicha relaci��n: la planificaci��n urban��stica austera bajo la influencia de la crisis fordista, la salida de la crisis a trav��s de la imposici��n de un modelo urbano basado en el sobreproducci��n de espacio urbano, y la entrada en una crisis inmobiliaria y de financiarizaci��n en relaci��n a la adopci��n de un modelo multidimensionalmente insostenible. El an��lisis de este periodo es la base para apuntar perspectivas que permitan transformar el gobierno urbano hacia un modelo urbano m��s deseable, o mejor a��n, otros futuros posibles, que se enmarcan dentro de la alternativa principal que supone la sostenibilidad. Madrid's Metropolitan Region (MMR) has undergone a major urban transformation in the period 1985-2007, where the population has grown up, the built environment has grown strongly, but mostly its cost and consumption have grown, which means that it has become unsustainable. To try to understand this evolution successive asymmetric models are tested in order to explain the transformation of reality through the articulation of forms of power and its associated policies in that localmetropolitan context. Comparing the urban transformation in the period 1985-2007 to the existing during developmentalism in the current predemocratic period, both have similarities in terms of land consumption, but the previous developmentalism model is part of another logics and has got other context parameters. It is consistent since the last decades of the Franco Regime was characterized by an important population increase that corresponded to strong industrial growth of the MMR. This relative consistency is lost during the study period, although in 1985, with the approval of the Master Plan of Madrid that was focused on the existing city, with a limited growth, and it may be considered an interrupted model. After numerous political, economic, social and urban changes, there is the opposite situation to that foresight under that Plan. Over twenty years later, in 2007, there are not only signs of exhaustion of the model which was finally adopted, but also its dramatic collapse in both real estate and financial dimension of space as well. The urban transformation under analysis has relaunched the hegemony of the sectors that rule the growth of the Madrid's Metropolitan Region and it is supported by decision making and financing of the different administrations with the passivity of the social stakeholders and citizens. This has meant the removal of regulatory mechanisms that have characterized the evolution of urban models, corresponding to the deregulation of economic activities and capital flows according to "neoliberal" model. The current international financial crisis, especially in some European peripheral countries like Spain, has shown how economic policies that have been carried out, without any regulation, have proven unsustainable. But it is not only an economic crisis. In the Spanish case, of all the dimensions of the crisis, it is the urban dimension that is highlighted, or the rise and fall of real estate cycle, due to intensive urbanization of the territory in relation to the secondary circuit of capital accumulation, having had a particular impact in some territories such as the Madrid's Metropolitan Region. In Madrid's Metropolitan Region there is the current situation of urban crisis, mainly caused by the divorce between needs and the city (space) production, because no growth has been based on creating new homes, or other demographic issues, but in the capital accumulation through growth of the city. Furthermore, this growth is made up of urban sprawl, with higher energy requirements than the traditional compact and complex one, which together with the scale of processes, is increasingly an inefficient urban system. The case of Madrid's Metropolitan Region is paradigmatic, since the region has played a role as a laboratory for new forms of governance and planning have given a greater role to space, which has entered the core dynamics supported mainly by physical growth, while specific circumstances have come together as a new impulse to centralization. This has promoted policies such as considering the city as an engine of economic growth and competitiveness in the international and the European hierarchy of cities. The study of the role of planning and crisis in the succession of models, shows its nuclear role in the constitution of these models is a fundamental part of its regulatory apparatus- and also its value not only to understand the period, but to anticipate to other urban future. This approach leads to establish the relationship of planning with the various crises in the study period, allowing three different moments of that relationship: the austere urban planning under the influence of Fordist crisis, the output of the crisis through imposition of an urban model based on the overproduction of urban space, and entry into a housing crisis and financialisation in relation to the adoption of a multi-dimensionally unsustainable model. The analysis of this period is the basis for targeting prospects that translate urban governance towards a more desirable urban model, or better yet, other possible futures, which are part of the main alternative that is sustainability.

Producci��n y gesti��n habitacional de los pobladores : articulaci��n con la pol��tica de vivienda y barrio : trayectoria y problem��tica actual

Esta tesis analiza las acciones de los pobladores en la creaci��n, consolidaci��n y transformaci��n de su h��bitat y en su relaci��n con la pol��tica p��blica de vivienda y barrio en Chile. A partir de la observaci��n directa en terreno y de la revisi��n de material proveniente de diversas fuentes afirmamos que, aunque los pobladores han hecho un trabajo de producci��n del h��bitat de gran magnitud y generalizado, las pol��ticas p��blicas no han reconocido suficientemente su papel en la construcci��n de la ciudad, no han incorporado a cabalidad las potencialidades e innovaciones surgidas de sus pr��cticas y estrategias, y nunca les han abierto un espacio claro en la toma de decisiones y en la puesta en obra de los programas habitacionales. En el contexto latinoamericano, la pol��tica habitacional chilena de los ��ltimos 20 a��os se ha considerado un ��xito y un ejemplo a seguir, puesto que ha demostrado ser eficaz en la disminuci��n del d��ficit habitacional. Sin embargo, ha tenido efectos urbanos y sociales nefastos, como la construcci��n de extensos bolsones perif��ricos de pobreza que se degradan aceleradamente, y la desintegraci��n social que genera la expulsi��n de los sin casa a la periferia, donde pierden sus redes familiares y sociales. Desde una trinchera opuesta, los allegados, los sin casa que viven al alero de otras familias y representan la mayor��a de la demanda por vivienda, exigen quedarse en barrios ya consolidados y evitan las periferias, en parte por mantener una red familiar y social que se sustenta en la proximidad f��sica, en parte por los equipamientos y servicios con que cuentan estos barrios y la cercan��a a las fuentes de empleo. Al mismo tiempo, los responsables de dise��ar la pol��tica habitacional no han buscado establecer una forma de colaboraci��n con los pobladores ���principales receptores de la pol��tica��� con el fin ajustar los programas p��blicos a las necesidades de las familias de bajos ingresos y a las realidades socioculturales de sus barrios. Por el contrario, han privilegiado una alianza con el sector privado, que conoce muy limitadamente las demandas de las familias. As��, en lugar de construir ciudades m��s justas, la pol��tica habitacional ha alimentado un mercado inmobiliario sustentado en la especulaci��n del suelo y fomentado la industria de la construcci��n. La pregunta que gu��a esta investigaci��n es c��mo incorporar el conocimiento acumulado y los procedimientos probados por los pobladores al dise��o y la implementaci��n de programas habitacionales y urbanos que promuevan procesos de regeneraci��n de las poblaciones y mejoren la distribuci��n de la vivienda social en la ciudad. Sostenemos que los pobladores, a lo largo de una trayectoria de m��s de medio siglo, han adquirido y consolidado todas las competencias para construir vivienda, mejorar sus barrios e incorporarse a la discusi��n sobre ordenamiento territorial. As��, hoy est��n capacitados para asumir un papel protag��nico en la definici��n de pol��ticas p��blicas que apunte a la construcci��n de ciudades m��s sostenibles y equitativas. La producci��n social del h��bitat vinculada al derecho a la ciudad y a la participaci��n de los pobladores ��desde abajo�� est�� bastante documentada en la literatura latinoamericana. En Chile se han escrito numerosos trabajos y evaluaciones sobre la pol��tica habitacional, pero los estudios sobre el movimiento de pobladores, enfocados desde las ciencias sociales o multidisciplinares, tienen un auge primero, durante los a��os 60 y principios de los 70 y luego, en la segunda mitad de los 80, pero posteriormente dejan de publicarse, a excepci��n de algunas investigaciones de historia urbana o social. En cuanto a los estudios que abordan las acciones de los pobladores desde una mirada puesta en los resultados de la producci��n y la gesti��n habitacional y urbana, estos han sido especialmente escasos y ninguno abarca un per��odo largo. La tesis aborda entonces las acciones espec��ficas que emprenden los pobladores a distintas escalas territoriales ���el conjunto, el barrio, la poblaci��n, la ciudad y el pa��s���, su relaci��n con la pol��tica habitacional y su articulaci��n con los dem��s actores que intervienen en la producci��n material del h��bitat. Lo realizado por los pobladores se estudia a la luz del largo plazo, desde la promulgaci��n de la primera ley de vivienda en 1906 hasta nuestros d��as, con el ��nfasis puesto entre los a��os 1990 y 2010, per��odo de producci��n masiva y sostenida de vivienda social, financiada por el Estado y construida por el sector privado en la periferia urbana, y m��s detalladamente entre 2006 y 2010, cuando los pobladores irrumpen con la ��gesti��n vecinal�� y la ��autogesti��n�� como medios para implementar los programas habitacionales del gobierno. Para ello se recorre toda la trayectoria y se complementa con procesos particulares, a la manera de un lente de acercamiento con el cual se focalizan y amplifican trece casos de estudios, para ilustrar modos de producci��n y gesti��n concretos y mostrar c��mo estos se inscriben en modos de hacer gen��ricos de los pobladores. Finalmente, con el lente centrado en el ��ltimo ciclo de este proceso escribimos el cap��tulo in��dito de los ��ltimos veinte a��os de esta historia. Primero se realiza la reconstrucci��n de tres casos de estudio ��en profundidad��, que incluyen la g��nesis, la consolidaci��n y las transformaciones del conjunto o barrio. Estos casos de estudio ��en profundidad�� se ponen en perspectiva reconstruyendo la trayectoria hist��rica de la producci��n y gesti��n realizada por los pobladores. Esta reconstrucci��n de largo per��odo se profundiza con tres casos de estudio ��espec��ficos��, de dimensi��n hist��rica, que tratan el conflicto del acceso a suelo. Finalmente se analizan las interrogantes que plantean estos procesos hoy en d��a para la producci��n y gesti��n de vivienda y barrio a futuro, a partir de entrevistas a actores claves y de la reconstrucci��n de siete casos de estudio ��espec��ficos�� de acceso a suelo ilustrativos del per��odo actual. La tesis sustenta que los pobladores, con las acciones de gesti��n y autogesti��n que realizan desde 2006, e interviniendo en la discusi��n sobre los instrumentos de planificaci��n territorial a partir del mismo a��o, se sit��an actualmente en una nueva plataforma de acci��n y negociaci��n desde la cual pueden incorporarse, con todas las competencias necesarias, a la definici��n de las pol��ticas p��blicas y as�� dotarlas de pertinencia y coherencia para contribuir a superar la pobreza con respuestas m��s acorde a sus realidades. ABSTRACT This thesis analyzes the actions of pobladores in the creation, consolidation and transformation of their habitat and their relationship with Chilean public housing and neighbourhood policy. Through direct observation in the field and the review of material from various sources we can affirm that although the pobladores have undertaken widespread work in the production of their environment, public policies have not sufficiently recognized their role in the construction of the city. Public policy has failed to fully incorporate the potential and innovation arising from practices and strategies employed by social housing recipients and has never opened a clear space for them in decision-making or the commissioning work of the housing programs. Within the Latin America context, the Chilean housing policy of the past 20 years has been considered a success and an example to follow given that it has proven effective in reducing the housing deficit. However it has had disastrous urban and social effects, such as construction of large peripheral pockets of poverty that degrade rapidly, and generates social disintegration through the expulsion of the homeless to the periphery, where they lose their family and social networks. On another front those homeless who live under the roof of relatives and who represent the majority of demand for social housing, request to stay in consolidated neighbourhoods avoiding the periphery, partly to maintain family and social networks based on physical proximity and partly because of the facilities and services available in these neighbourhoods and their adjacency to sources of employment. At the same time, those responsible for designing housing policy have not sought to establish a form of collaboration with the pobladores in order to adjust the public programs to the needs of low-income families and the socio-cultural realities of their neighbourhoods. On the contrary an alliance with the private sector has been favored, a sector which has very limited knowledge of the demands of the recipients. Therefore instead of building more equal cities, housing policy has fueled a housing market which supports land speculation and promotes the construction industry. The question leading this research is how to incorporate the accumulated knowledge and proven procedures of the pobladores in the design and implementation of programs that promote housing and urban regeneration processes and which could improve the distribution of social housing in the city. We maintain that social housing recipients over the course of half a century have acquired and consolidated all the skills to build housing, improve neighborhoods and join the discussion on city planning. These residents are now capable of assuming a leading role in defining public policies that aim to build more sustainable and equitable cities. The social production of the environment linked to the right to the city and resident participation from the ��bottom-up�� is well documented in Latin American literature. In Chile there are extensive written works and assessments on housing policy with multidisciplinary or social science studies on the movement of the pobladores peaking during the 60���s and early 70���s and then again in the second half of the 80���s but afterwards this stops, with the exception of some research on social or urban history. As for studies that address the actions of the pobladores looking at the results of production and housing and urban management these have been particularly scarce and none of which cover a long period of time. The thesis then addresses the specific actions undertaken by the pobladores at different territorial levels; the housing development, the neighbourhood, the community, the city and State, and their relation to housing policy and its coordination with other actors involved in the production process of the built environment. The accomplishments of the pobladores is studied over the long term, since the enactment of the first housing law in 1906 to the present, with an emphasis between 1990 and 2010, a period of mass production and sustained social housing which was State-funded and built by the private sector in the urban periphery, and in particular between 2006 and 2010, when the pobladores break with the ��neighborhood management�� and ��self-management�� as a means to implement the housing programs of the government. To this end the entire process is outlined and is complemented by specific processes which are placed under a lens in order to focus and amplify thirteen case studies illustrating actual ways of production and management and to show how these ways of doing things are generic to the pobladores. Finally, with the lens focused on the last cycle of this process we write the new chapter of the last twenty years of this history. First there is a reconstruction of three case studies ��in depth��, including their origins, consolidation and the transformation of the sector or neighborhood. These ��in depth�� case studies are put into perspective reconstructing the historical trajectory of the production and management by the pobladores. This reconstruction over a long period is given great depth by three ��specific�� case studies, of historical importance, dealing with the conflict of access to land. Finally we analyze the questions raised by these processes for the production and management of housing and neighborhood in the future, based on interviews with key players and the reconstruction of seven case studies specifically regarding access to land and which are illustrative of current practice. The thesis maintains that since 2006 the pobladores through actions of management and selfmanagement and their intervention in the debate on territorial planning has placed them on a new platform for action and negotiation from which they can incorporate themselves, with all the necessary capacities, in the definition of public policy and therefore provide it with a pertinence and coherence to help towards overcoming poverty with answers more according to their realities.

Implicaciones de la accesibilidad configuracional en la movilidad peatonal. El caso de Madrid = The implications of configurational accessibility in pedestrian mobility. The case of Madrid

- Resumen La hip��tesis que anima esta tesis doctoral es que algunas de las caracter��sticas del entorno urbano, en particular las que describen la accesibilidad de su red de espacio p��blico, podr��an estar relacionadas con la proporci��n de viajes a pie o reparto modal, que tiene cada zona o barrio de Madrid. Uno de los puntos de partida de dicha hip��tesis que el entorno urbano tiene una mayor influencia sobre los viaje a pie que en sobre otros modos de transporte, por ejemplo que en los viajes de bicicleta o en transporte p��blico; y es que parece razonable suponer que estos ��ltimos van a estar m��s condicionadas por ejemplo por la disponibilidad de v��as ciclistas, en el primer caso, o por la existencia de un servicio fiable y de calidad, en el segundo. Otra de las motivaciones del trabajo es que la investigaci��n en este campo de la accesibilidad del espacio p��blico, en concreto la denominada ���Space Syntax���, ha probado en repetidas ocasiones la influencia de la red de espacio p��blico en c��mo se distribuye la intensidad del tr��fico peatonal por la trama urbana, pero no se han encontrado referencias de la influencia de dicho elemento sobre el reparto modal. De acuerdo con la hip��tesis y con otros trabajos anteriores se propone una metodolog��a basada en el an��lisis emp��rico y cuantitativo. Su objetivo es comprobar si la red de espacio p��blico, independientemente de otras variables como los usos del suelo, incluso de las variables de ajenas entorno no construido, como las socioecon��micas, est�� o no relacionada estad��sticamente con la proporci��n de peatones viajes en las zonas urbanas. Las t��cnicas estad��sticas se utilizan para comprobar sistem��ticamente la asociaci��n de las variables del entorno urbano, denominadas variables independientes, con el porcentaje de viajes a pie, la variable dependiente. En t��rminos generales, la metodolog��a es similar a la usada en otros trabajos en este campo como los de CERVER�� y KOCKLEMAN (1997), CERVER�� y DUNCAN (2003), o para los que se utilizan principalmente en la revisi��n general de TRB (2005) o, m��s recientemente, en ZEGRAS (2006) o CHATMAN (2009). Otras opciones metodol��gicas, como los m��todos de preferencias declaradas (ver LOUVIERE, HENSHER y SWAIT, 2000) o el an��lisis basado en agentes (PENN & TURNER, 2004) fueron descartados, debido a una serie de razones, demasiado extensas para ser descritas aqu��. El caso de estudio utilizado es la zona metropolitana de Madrid, abarc��ndola hasta la M-50, es decir en su mayor parte, con un tama��o aproximado de 31x34 Km y una poblaci��n de 4.132.820 habitantes (aproximadamente el 80% de la poblaci��n de la regi��n). Las principales fuentes de datos son la Encuesta Domiciliaria de Movilidad de 2004 (EDM04), del Consorcio Regional de Transportes de Madrid que es la ��ltima disponible (muestra: > 35.000 familias,> 95.000 personas), y un modelo espacial del ��rea metropolitana, integrando el modelo para calcular los ��ndices de Space Syntax y un Sistema de Informaci��n Geogr��fica (SIG). La unidad de an��lisis, en este caso las unidades espaciales, son las zonas de transporte (con una poblaci��n media de 7.063 personas) y los barrios (con una poblaci��n media de 26.466 personas). Las variables del entorno urbano son claramente el centro del estudio. Un total de 20 ��ndices (de 21) se seleccionan de entre los m��s relevantes encontrados en la revisi��n de la producci��n cient��fica en este campo siendo que, al mismo tiempo, fueran accesibles. Nueve de ellos se utilizan para describir las caracter��sticas de los usos del suelo, mientras que otros once se usan para describir la red de espacios p��blicos. Estos ��ltimos incluyen las variables de accesibilidad configuracional, que son, como se desprende de su t��tulo, el centro del estudio propuesto. La accesibilidad configuracional es un tipo especial de accesibilidad que se basa en la configuraci��n de la trama urbana, seg��n esta fue definida por HILLIER (1996), el autor de referencia dentro de esta l��nea de investigaci��n de Space Syntax. Adem��s se incluyen otras variables de la red de espacio p��blico m��s habituales en los estudios de movilidad, y que aqu�� se denominan caracter��sticas geom��tricas de los elementos de la red, tales como su longitud, tipo de intersecci��n, conectividad, etc. Por ��ltimo se incluye adem��s una variable socioecon��mica, es decir ajena al entorno urbano, para evaluar la influencia de los factores externos, pues son varios los que pueden tener un impacto en la decisi��n de caminar (edad, g��nero, nivel de estudios, ingresos, tasa de motorizaci��n, etc.). La asociaci��n entre las variables se han establecido usando an��lisis de correlaci��n (bivariante) y modelos de an��lisis multivariante. Las primeras se calculan entre por pares entre cada una de las 21 variables independientes y la dependiente, el porcentaje de viajes a pie. En cuanto a los segundos, se han realizado tres tipos de estudios: modelo multivariante general lineal, modelo multivariante general curvil��neo y an��lisis discriminante. Todos ellos son capaces de generar modelos de asociaci��n entre diversas variables, pudi��ndose de esta manera evaluar con bastante precisi��n en qu�� medida cada modelo reproduce el comportamiento de la variable dependiente, y adem��s, el peso o influencia de cada variable en el modelo respecto a las otras. Los resultados fundamentales del estudio se expresan en dos modelos finales alternativos, que demuestran tener una significativa asociaci��n con el porcentaje de viajes a pie (R2 = 0,6789, p <0,0001), al explicar las dos terceras partes de su variabilidad. En ellos, y en general en todo el estudio realizado, se da una influencia constante de tres ��ndices en particular, que quedan como los principales. Dos de ellos, de acuerdo con muchos de los estudios previos, corresponden a la densidad y la mezcla de usos del suelo. Pero lo m��s novedoso de los resultados obtenidos es que el tercero es una medida de la accesibilidad de la red de espacio p��blico, algo de lo que no hab��a referencias hasta ahora. Pero, ��cu��l es la definici��n precisa y el peso relativo de cada uno en el modelo, es decir, en la variable independiente? El de mayor peso en la mayor parte de los an��lisis realizados es el ��ndice de densidad total (n �� residentes + n �� puestos de trabajo + n �� alumnos / Ha). Es decir, una densidad no s��lo de poblaci��n, sino que incluye algunas de las actividades m��s importantes que pueden darse una zona para generar movilidad a pie. El segundo que mayor peso adquiere, llegando a ser el primero en alguno de los an��lisis estad��sticos efecturados, es el ��ndice de accesibuilidad configuracional denominado integraci��n de radio 5. Se trata de una medida de la accesibilidad de la zona, de su centralidad, a la escala de, m��s un menor, un distrito o comarca. En cuanto al tercero, obtiene una importancia bastante menor que los anteriores, y es que representa la mezcla de usos. En concreto es una medida del equilibrio entre los comercios especializados de venta al por menor y el n��mero de residentes (n �� de tiendas especializadas en alimentaci��n, bebidas y tabaco / n �� de habitantes). Por lo tanto, estos resultados confirman buena parte de los de estudios anteriores, especialmente los relativas a los usos del suelo, pero al mismo tiempo, apuntan a que la red de espacio p��blico podr��a tener una influir mayor de la comprobada hasta ahora en la proporci��n de peatones sobre el resto de modos de transportes. Las razones de por qu�� esto puede ser as��, se discuten ampliamente en las conclusiones. Finalmente se puede precisar que dicha conclusi��n principal se refiere a viajes de una sola etapa (no multimodales) que se dan en los barrios y zonas del ��rea metropolitana de Madrid. Por supuesto, esta conclusi��n tiene en la actualidad, una validez limitada, ya que es el resultado de un solo caso ��� Abstract The research hypothesis for this Ph.D. Thesis is that some characteristics of the built environment, particularly those describing the accessibility of the public space network, could be associated with the proportion of pedestrians in all trips (modal split), found in the different parts of a city. The underlying idea is that walking trips are more sensitive to built environment than those by other transport modes, such as for example those by bicycle or by public transport, which could be more conditioned by, e.g. infrastructure availability or service frequency and quality. On the other hand, it has to be noted that the previously research on this field, in particular within Space Syntax���s where this study can be referred, have tested similar hypothesis using pedestrian volumes as the dependent variable, but never against modal split. According to such hypothesis, research methodology is based primarily on empirical quantitative analysis, and it is meant to be able to assess whether public space network, no matter other built environment and non-built environment variables, could have a relationship with the proportion of pedestrian trips in urban areas. Statistical techniques are used to check the association of independent variables with the percentage of walking in all trips, the dependent one. Broadly speaking this methodology is similar to that of previous studies in the field such as CERVERO&KOCKLEMAN (1997), CERVERO & DUNCAN (2003), or to those used mainly in the general review of T.R.B. (2005) or, more recently in ZEGRAS (2006) or CHATMAN (2009). Other methodological options such as stated choice methods (see LOUVIERE, HENSHER & SWAIT, 2000) or agent based analysis (PENN & TURNER, 2004), were discarded, due to a number of reasons, too long to be described here. The case study is not the entire Madrid���s metropolitan area, but almost (4.132.820 inhabitants, about 80% of region��s population). Main data sources are the Regional Mobility Home Based Survey 2004 (EDM04), which is the last available (sample: >35.000 families, > 95.000 individuals), and a spatial model of the metropolitan area, developed using Space Syntax and G.I.S. techniques. The analysis unit, in this case spatial units, are both transport zones (mean population = 7.063) and neighborhoods (mean population = 26.466). The variables of the built environment are clearly the core of the study. A total of 20 (out of 21) are selected from among those found in the literature while, at the same time, being accessible. Nine out of them are used to describe land use characteristics while another eleven describe the network of public spaces. Latter ones include configurational accessibility or Space Syntax variables. This is a particular sort of accessibility related with the concept of configuration, by HILLIER (1996), one of the main authors of Space Syntax, But it also include more customary variables used in mobility research to describe the urban design or spatial structure (here public space network), which here are called geometric characteristics of the such as its length, type of intersection, conectivity, density, etc. Finally a single socioeconomic variable was included in order to assess the influence non built environment factors that also may have an impact on walking (age, income, motorization rate, etc.). The association among variables is worked out using bi-variate correlation analysis and multivariate-analysis. Correlations are calculated among the 21 independent variables and the dependent one, the percentage of walking trips. Then, three types of multi-variate studies are run: general linear, curvilinear and discriminant multi-variate analysis. The latter are fully capable of generating complex association models among several variables, assessing quite precisely to what extent each model reproduces the behavior of the dependent variable, and also the weight or influence of each variable in the model. This study���s results show a consistent influence of three particular indexes in the two final alternative models of the multi-variate study (best, R2=0,6789, p<0,0000). Not surprisingly, two of them correspond to density and mix of land uses. But perhaps more interesting is that the third one is a measure of the accessibility of the public space network, a variable less important in the literature up to now. Additional precisions about them and their relative weight could also be of some interest. The density index is not only about population but includes most important activities in an area (n�� residents + n�� jobs+ n�� students/Ha). The configurational index (radius 5 integration) is a measure of the accessibility of the area, i.e. centrality, at the scale of, more a less, a district. Regarding the mix of land uses index, this one is a measure of the balance between retail, in fact local basic retail, and the number of residents (n�� of convenience shops / n�� of residents). Referring to their weights, configurational index (radius 5 integration) gets the higher standardized coefficient of the final equation. However, in the final equations, there are a higher number of indexes coming from the density or land use mix categories than from public space network enter. Therefore, these findings seem to support part of the field���s knowledge, especially those concerning land uses, but at the same time they seem to bring in the idea that the configuration of the urban grid could have an influence in the proportion of walkers (as a part of total trips on any transport mode) that do single journey trips in the neighborhoods of Madrid, Spain. Of course this conclusion has, at present, a limited validity since it���s the result of a single case. The reasons of why this can be so, are discussed in the last part of the thesis.

La modernidad arquitect��nica en M��xico : una mirada a trav��s del arte y los medios impresos

Esta tesis se basa en la hip��tesis de que la modernidad arquitect��nica en M��xico no es, como se ha pretendido, una historia homog��nea, centrada en un pu��ado de figuras clave, sino una multiplicidad de narrativas complejas en las cuales el arte y los medios impresos juegan un papel esencial. Por tanto, se propone una nueva mirada sobre la arquitectura del siglo XX en M��xico a partir de la relaci��n con la fotograf��a, el dibujo, las ideas y los medios. La tesis se plantea con el fin de vincular la arquitectura con los movimientos art��sticos relevantes, los autores con las publicaciones, las formas con los manifiestos. As��mismo, uno de los principales intereses es explorar los conceptos de modernidad y de identidad, como parte de la construcci��n misma de la arquitectura de dicha ��poca y del concepto de ���lo mexicano���. A pesar del ��nfasis que se ha dado en la construcci��n de un canon, muchas veces ligado a la noci��n de monumentalidad, regionalismo, y mestizaje, este trabajo parte de una mirada puesta no en las formas sino en los procesos. A partir de las conexiones entre distintas capas de informaci��n, se buscan nuevas maneras de abordar el proyecto arquitect��nico. El cr��tico de arquitectura brasile��o Hugo Segawa ha descrito la investigaci��n sobre la arquitectura latinoamericana como ���una tarea m��s de ��ndole arqueol��gica que historiogr��fica���, sin embargo, tambi��n ha calificado a M��xico como ���el m��s vigoroso centro de debates te��ricos en Latinoam��rica a lo largo del siglo XX.��� Ese descompas entre la ruina y el vigor, entre la abundancia de producci��n y la precariedad de su conservaci��n, ha definido no solo el estudio de la arquitectura sino las propias formas de creaci��n. Por tanto, la tesis se plantea como una nueva plataforma desde la cual sea posible reformular la arquitectura, lejos de su condici��n amn��sica, pensada en cambio, como un sistema basado en una misma voluntad por indagar y crear. Se busca, siguiendo al cr��tico brit��nico Anthony Vidler, ���relacionar��� la historia con el proyecto. Con el fin de quitarle lo escurridizo a una historia incompleta y sobre todo de poder entender la manera en que las ideas se convierten en forma o en objeto, la tesis se estructura a partir de 22 l��neas de tiempo organizadas en tres recorridos que se cruzan: arquitectura; arte y pensamiento. A partir de referencias como el Atlas Mnemosyne de Aby Wargurg o la serie Asterisms del artista Gabriel Orozco, se crean nuevos dispositivos para ver. De tal manera, se desdoblan los distintos temas para trazar relaciones entre la ciudad, los edificios, las utop��as, las publicaciones y la publicidad. El trabajo se construye como un nuevo instrumento de exploraci��n articulado por medio de capas, como un mapa geneal��gico evolutivo. El objetivo es abarcar aquella arquitectura construida no s��lo en la ciudad sino tambi��n en el papel. Iniciando con el trabajo de la generaci��n que llev�� la arquitectura al siglo XX, el estudio se extiende a manera de ep��logo hasta la primera d��cada del siglo XXI, reuniendo obras que normalmente se han visto de manera aislada para entenderlas en su contexto m��s amplio. Como escenario de b��squedas, esta tesis intenta provocar el cruce de significados, creyendo imprescindible una nueva reflexi��n en torno a la disciplina y a los escenarios en los cuales se inscribe. La arquitectura de M��xico ���un pa��s que en el siglo XX pas�� de tener 13 millones de habitantes a 100 millonescorresponde esencialmente a una producci��n an��nima, o bien, fabricada a partir de estereotipos. Pero entre la mancha de desarrollo informal y el hito reconocible est�� un trabajo tan amplio como inexplorado. Por tanto, se ofrece una serie de nuevas constelaciones que comprenden desde la Revoluci��n de 1910 a los Juegos Ol��mpicos de 1968; del terremoto de la ciudad de M��xico en 1985 a los concursos internacionales de las ��ltimas d��cadas. This thesis��� hypothesis states that architectural modernity in Mexico is not, as sometimes pretended, a homogeneous history, focused on some key figures, but rather a multiple and complex narrative, in which art and print media have played an essential role. Therefore, it proposes a new perspective on 20th century architecture in Mexico analized through the relationship between architecture and photography, art, theory and media. Its aim is to link architecture and artistic movements, authors and publications, forms and manifestos. What is intended here is to explore the concepts of ���modernity��� and ���identity��� as part of the construction of architecture and the concept of ���Mexicanity���. Despite the emphasis that has been given to the construction of an architectural canon ���mostly related to the notions of monumentality, regionalism and mestizaje/m��tissage��� this thesis��� approach is focused mainly in processes and not in forms. Through connections between diverse layers of information, new ways of dealing with the architectural project are explored. Brazilian architecture critic Hugo Segawa has described the research on Latin American architecture as ��more a task of archaeology than of historiography��. Nonetheless, he has also described Mexico as ��the most vigorous center of theoretical debates in Latin America throughout the 20th century��. This acute discrepancy between decay and vigor, between abundance of production and precarious state of conservation has determined not only the ways in which architecture is studied and understood but also the process of architectural creation. This work is therefore outlined as a new platform in order to reformulate the discipline as a system based on a common will to research and create, far from the existing amnesiac attitude. Following British critic Anthony Vidler, the interest relies in the attempt to ���relate��� History to project. In order to reduce the elusiveness of an incomplete history and, specially, to understand how ideas become forms and objects, this thesis is composed of 22 timelines organized in three intersecting itineraries: Architecture, Art and Theory. Drawing inspiration from Aby Warburg���s Atlas Mnemosyne and Gabriel Orozco���s series Asterisms, new exploration devices are created. In such a way, diverse topics unfold to draw connections between built environment, utopian projects, publications, photography and publicity. This work is developed as a new tool for exploration, articulated by layers, like an evolutionary genealogy map. Its objective is to analyze not only the architecture build in cities, but produced on paper. Starting with the work of the generation that led Mexican architecture into the 20th century, this research extends until the first decade of the 21st century (the epilogue), gathering together works which have been usually seen in isolation, and therefore making possible its understanding in a broader context. As a scenario for exploration, this work tries to prompt the crossing of meanings, in the belief that new approaches on the discipline and its context are needed. Architecture in Mexico ��� a country whose population grew in the 20th century form 13 to 100 million��� is related essentially with an anonymous production, or else made from stereotypes. However, between the sprawl of informal urban developments and landmark buildings there is an architectural production as extensive as it is unexamined. This essay introduces a series of new constellations, ranging from the Revolution in 1910 to the Olympic Games in 1968; from the earthquake in Mexico City in 1985 to the international competitions of the last decade. These myriad perspectives present buildings that were never built, forgotten writings, iconic images and unpublished material.

Neighborhood mobility: A Long-Gone Pardigm? Approaching proximity and land use mix using data from home based surveys.

El WCTR es un congreso de reconocido prestigio internacional en el ��mbito de la investigaci��n del transporte y aunque las actas publicadas est��n en formato digital y sin ISSN ni ISBN, lo consideramos lo suficientemente importante como para que se considere en los indicadores. Policies trying to increase walking within urban mobility modal split usually highlight the importance of the functional patterns and the environmental quality of the urban space as major drivers of citizens modal choices. Functional characteristics would be mainly associated to an appropriate mix of land uses within neighbourhoods, whereas environmental quality would be associated to the characteristics of urban spaces. The purpose of this research is threefold: first, to identify relevant proxy indicators, which could characterize pedestrian-friendly land use mix and environmental quality. Second, to assess, for both traits, existing disparities among neighbourhoods in a major metropolitan area. And finally, to explore the association between both indicators and children mobility patterns: according to their built environment, which neighbourhoods have a greater proportion of children and, how is their mobility? Using data from the 2004 household mobility survey in the 128 neighbourhoods of the municipality of Madrid, this paper concludes that potentially favourable conditions at the neighbourhood level seem to have only a modest influence in,mobility patterns , in terms of both, selection of closer destinations and a higher share of walking within modal split. The citys policy choices, with intensive investment in road and public transport infrastructure may explain why short-distance mobility is not as important as it could have been expected in those neighbourhoods with more pedestrian-friendly conditions. The metropolitan transport system is providing mobility conditions, which make far-away destinations attractive to most citizens.

Residential self-selection and geographical scales in trip frequency.

Neighbourhood representation and scale used to measure the built environment have been treated in many ways. However, it is anything but clear what representation of neighbourhood is the most feasible in the existing literature. This paper presents an exhaustive analysis of built environment attributes through three spatial scales. For this purpose multiple data sources are integrated, and a set of 943 observations is analysed. This paper simultaneously analyses the influence of two methodological issues in the study of the relationship between built environment and travel behaviour: (1) detailed representation of neighbourhood by testing different spatial scales; (2) the influence of unobserved individual sensitivity to built environment attributes. The results show that different spatial scales of built environment attributes produce different results. Hence, it is important to produce local and regional transport measures, according to geographical scale. Additionally, the results show significant sensitivity to built environment attributes depending on place of residence. This effect, called residential sorting, acquires different magnitudes depending on the geographical scale used to measure the built environment attributes. Spatial scales risk to the stability of model results. Hence, transportation modellers and planners must take into account both effects of self-selection and spatial scales.

Planeamiento y pol��ticas de vivienda en el ��rea metropolitana de Madrid durante la democracia (1975-2007)

La tesis analiza la realidad residencial construida en los municipios del ��rea Metropolitana de Madrid durante la democracia, en t��rminos de localizaci��n, cantidad y calidad/cualidad, y su relaci��n con el desarrollo de las pol��ticas de planeamiento y de vivienda. La pregunta central que ha guiado la investigaci��n es la siguiente: ��c��mo han incidido los instrumentos de pol��tica de vivienda y de planeamiento urban��stico en el crecimiento residencial de los municipios del ��rea Metropolitana de Madrid? Se trata de poner en relaci��n dos pol��ticas p��blicas orientadas por la Administraci��n en sus distintos niveles de actuaci��n: una de car��cter territorial, el planeamiento urban��stico -cuya ejecuci��n es de competencia municipal-, y otra de car��cter sectorial, las pol��ticas de vivienda -definidas por la Administraci��n Central y Auton��mica-. Al considerar la pol��tica de vivienda como el resultado de la pol��tica financiera, la pol��tica fiscal y la pol��tica de suelo, se ha observado c��mo en Espa��a las dos primeras suponen m��s del 70% de la intervenci��n presupuestaria en vivienda. Esta investigaci��n se ha centrado particularmente en la tercera, la pol��tica de suelo, por su vinculaci��n directa con el planeamiento urban��stico, pero sin dejar de tener en cuenta las dos primeras, no s��lo por su implicaci��n en el gasto p��blico, sino porque han tenido tanto efecto, o m��s, en la conformaci��n de la ciudad como ha podido tenerlo el planeamiento. La primera parte de la tesis se centra en el estudio de las pol��ticas, sus objetivos e instrumentos (normativos y de planificaci��n), mientras que en la segunda parte se analiza la realidad construida, por medio de una serie de variables e indicadores relacionados con la producci��n residencial (suelo y viviendas); en la tercera se presenta la parte de an��lisis y las conclusiones generales. Al cruzar los objetivos y los instrumentos de ambas pol��ticas se ha podido concluir con una propuesta de periodizaci��n evidenciando las ontinuidades, cambios o transformaciones: despu��s de una etapa de transici��n ���de 1975 a 1978, coincide con los a��os de la transici��n democr��tica, en el que se definen las bases de las nuevas pol��ticas-, se han podido diferenciar tres per��odos: 1979-1989, 1990-1997 y 1998-2007. El primer per��odo corresponde a los a��os en los que se fue construyendo todo el aparato institucional regulador con las nuevas administraciones que surgieron de la democracia. El segundo per��odo, aunque comenz�� con la aprobaci��n de la Ley del Suelo de 1990 como instrumento clave del planeamiento regulador, se caracteriz�� por el cuestionamiento del modelo intervencionista y por los primeros planteamientos de liberalizaci��n. Finalmente, en el tercer per��odo se pusieron las bases normativas de la liberalizaci��n del suelo en Espa��a, con la reforma de la Ley del Suelo de 1998 y otras medidas ���remediales���. Finalmente, se presenta el an��lisis de los resultados sobre la realidad construida, teniendo como clave de interpretaci��n la periodizaci��n propuesta a partir de las pol��ticas, con el prop��sito de conocer c��mo han podido incidir en el crecimiento residencial del AMM. Por tanto, la tesis aborda la inquietud de cu��ndo, c��mo y d��nde las pol��ticas p��blicas han construido ciudad y han generado barrios, pues tambi��n trata de analizar los espacios urbanos que han sido el resultado f��sico de dichas pol��ticas (aspectos de los conjuntos residenciales, el entorno inmediato y su relaci��n con el tejido urbano existente), y no s��lo de mostrar cantidades de viviendas construidas. Posteriormente, el estudio se centra en el an��lisis de las actuaciones p��blicas sobre suelos destinados a uno de los llamados ���usos d��biles���, las viviendas protegidas. ��stas se han beneficiado, de una u otra manera, de las ayudas econ��micas que se incluyen en los planes de vivienda y, por ello, est��n sujetas a unos par��metros definidos por la normativa vigente en cada caso. Ha interesado realizar una valoraci��n de las mismas a partir de criterios de integraci��n social y funcional, y de equilibrio territorial. ABSTRACT The PhD thesis analyses the residential areas built in the Metropolitan Area of Madrid, in terms of location, quality and quantity, and the relationship to the resulting built environment planning and housing policies. Its cover a period of tree decades since the onset of democracy in Spain in 1975 up to the beginning of the great recession starting 2007. The central question that has guided the research is the following: how the instruments of housing policy and urban planning have influenced the residential growth of the municipalities of the Metropolitan Area of Madrid? It is about putting together two different public policies that are also carried out at different levels of government: spacial and urban planning ���whose execution is under municipal jurisdiction under principles and guidelines defined at a regional scale; and the sectorial housing policies which are mostly defined by the Nacional and Regional governments and are very interlinked with the wider economic policies of the country. When considering housing policy as the result of financial, fiscal and land policy, it has been noted in Spain that instruments under the first two types of measures (financial and fiscal) account for over 70% of the housing budget intervention. This research has particularly focused on the third, Land Policy, because of its direct link to urban planning. Nevertheless, the research also considers f inancial and f iscal pol icies, not only because of thei r signi f icant level of publ ic spending, but al so because of thei r great impacto n shaping the way the ci ty is bui l t . The first part of the thesis focuses on the study of the policies, objectives and instruments (housing and planning), while the second part analyses the built reality by means of a number of variables and indicators related to the housing production (land and housing). In the third part the analysis and general conclusions are presented. After relating the objectives and instruments of both policies, the thesis concludes with a proposal for periodization showing continuities, changes and transformations: after a transition period ��� from 1975 to 1978 coinciding with the years of the democratic transition, in which the basis of the new policies were defined- tree periods (1979-1989, 1990- 1997 and 1998-2007) have been d i s t i n g u i s h e d . The first period covers the years in which a new institutional apparatus wa s b u i l t wi t h t h e n e w a r r a n g eme n t s t h a t eme r g e d from democracy. The second period, even though it began with the approval of the Land Act 1990 as key element of the regulatory planning, was characterized by the questioning of public intervention and early approaches to liberalization. Finally, in the third period, the normative basis of liberalization was set up in Spain, with the reform of the Land Act 1998 and other ���corrective��� measures. At a final point, the analisys of the results on the reality constructed is presented having as a key of interpretation the periodization proposed. This provides tools for interpreting how policies did affect residential growth in the Metropolitan Area of Madrid. Therefore, the thesis addresses the issues of when, how and where public policies have inf luenced and guided the development of resident ial ��reas in the regi��n dur ing this t ime f rame. I t is also concerned with analysing those urban spaces that have been the physical result of such policies (aspects of residential complexes, the immediate environment and its relationship with the existing urban infraestructure), going beyond the analisys of statistical data. Subsequently, the study focuses on the analysis of public actions on land for the so-called "weak uses" particularly social housing. These have benefited in one way or another, of financial assistance included in housing plans and, therefore, are subject to some parameters defined by the regulations in force in each case.

Reality bites: Documentary photography and architectural realism = Fragmentos de realidad: Fotograf��a documental y realismo en arquitectura

En el d��a de hoy nos enfrentamos a una serie de desaf��os econ��micos, geopol��ticos y ambientales que apuntan hacia una transformaci��n profunda del mundo tal y como lo conocemos. La arquitectura esta ��� siempre lo ha estado ��� imbricada en todos estos problemas. En nuestra actual condici��n de recursos limitados e injusticia global surge la necesidad de superar la dicotom��a entre progreso y tradici��n, entre innovaci��n y preservaci��n ��� la urgencia de redefinir incluso cada uno de estos t��rminos. Los tipos de crisis que encaramos ahora no se resolver��n con mas tecnolog��a y m��s crecimiento ��� se necesita tambi��n una profunda reevaluaci��n de nuestros sistemas de valores e incluso de nuestra sensibilidad. En este contexto, la humilde contribuci��n de esta tesis consiste en proponer la idea de un realismo en arquitectura, entendido como una actitud progresista y atenta a lo que ya existe, dispuesta a abrir los ojos al presente, a las condiciones y los problemas reales que nos rodean. Pensando en esta idea, resulta evidente que si bien el realismo carece de una definici��n clara en el campo de la arquitectura hoy, cuenta sin embargo con numerosos precedentes parciales, entre ellos algunos de los m��s notorios episodios de la historia de la arquitectura reciente. Al intentar confeccionar una lista provisional de arquitectos realistas en el ��ltimo siglo, otro hecho se nos presenta: muchos, por no decir todos estos arquitectos, comparten una fijaci��n por la fotograf��a, bien apropi��ndose del trabajo de fot��grafos contempor��neos, bien tomando sus propias im��genes como una forma de mirar fuera de sus estudios e incorporar la realidad del medio construido a sus proyectos. Parece entonces l��gico pensar que la arquitectura, como disciplina visual, ha acudido a otra disciplina visual en b��squeda de su propia respuesta al problema del realismo ��� dentro de este campo la fotograf��a reverbera con la arquitectura especialmente, ya que ambas son consideradas simult��neamente como practicas utilitarias y como parte de las bellas artes. Parece entonces l��gico el organizar la investigaci��n como una serie de casos, con la esperanza de que la acumulaci��n de diversas instancias en las que la arquitectura ha acudido a la fotograf��a en su b��squeda de un realismo arrojara luz sobre las ideas m��s generales a debate. Por tanto, cada uno de los episodios en este texto se examina en sus propios t��rminos, si bien una serie de interconexiones emergen a medida que el estudio procede con un suave orden cronol��gico. Hacia el final del texto cuestiones m��s grandes recobran protagonismo, a medida que las repercusiones pol��ticas de nuestro estudio se hacen m��s patentes y comenzamos a interrogar las implicaciones contempor��neas y el potencial futuro de nuestra discusi��n sobre el realismo. ABSTRACT Today we are faced with a series of economic, geopolitical and environmental challenges that outline a deep transformation of the world as we know it. Architecture is ��� it has always been ��� ingrained in all of these problems. In our current condition of limited resources and global inequalities there is a necessity to overcome the dichotomy between progress and tradition, between innovation and preservation ��� an urgency to even redefine these terms altogether. The types of crises that we are facing will not be solved with more technology and more growth ��� a deep reevaluation of our systems of values and our sensibilities are also needed. In this context, the humble contribution of this text is to put forward the idea of an architectural realism, understood as an attitude that is both progressive and attentive to what is already in place, willing to open its eyes to the present and accept the real conditions and problems around us. In thinking about this prospect, it immediately becomes apparent that even if realism lacks a clear definition in the field of architecture today, there are numerous partial precedents for it, among them some of the most notorious episodes in the recent history of architecture. In crafting a tentative list of realist architects in the last century, another realization takes place: many, not to say all of these architects, have had a fixation with photography, either appropriating the work of contemporary photographers or taking photographs themselves as a way to look out their windows and bring the reality of the built environment into their practices. It seems then logical to think that architecture, as a visual discipline, has looked to other visual disciplines in search for its own take on the problem of realism ��� within this field, photography specially resonates with architecture, since both are regarded simultaneously as utilitarian practices and belonging to the fine arts. The idea then becomes to organize the research as a series of cases, with the hope that the accumulation of diverse instances in which architecture has approached photography in its realist drive will shed some light on the larger ideas at stake. Therefore, each of the episodes in this text is examined on its own terms, with a series of interconnections slowly emerging as our survey proceeds with a soft chronologic order. Towards the end of the study, larger issues regain relevance as the political repercussions of our inquiry become more pressing and we start to question the contemporary implications and future potentials of our discussion on realism.

Sensing Aeropolis. Urban air monitoring devices in Madrid, 2006-2010

Esta tesis examina las implicaciones t��cnicas, pol��ticas y espaciales del aire urbano, y en concreto, de la calidad del aire, para tenerlo en cuenta desde una perspectiva arquitect��nica. En oposici��n a formas de entender el aire como un vac��o o como una met��fora, este proyecto propone abordarlo desde un acercamiento material y tecnol��gico, trayendo el entorno al primer plano y reconociendo sus m��ltiples agencias. Debido a la escasa bibliograf��a detectada en el campo de la arquitectura, el objetivo es construir un marco te��rico-anal��tico para considerar el aire urbano. Para ello el trabajo construye Aeropolis, una met��fora heur��stica que describe el ensamblaje sociotecnico de la ciudad. Situada en la intersecci��n de determinadas ramas de la filosof��a de la cultura, los estudios sobre ciencia y tecnolog��a y estudios feministas de la ciencia este nuevo paisaje conceptual ofrece una metodolog��a y herramientas para abordar el objeto de estudio desde distintos ��ngulos. Estas herramientas metodol��gicas han sido desarrolladas en el contexto espec��fico de Madrid, ciudad muy contaminada cuyo aire ha sido objeto de controversias pol��ticas y sociales, y donde las pol��ticas y tecnolog��as para reducir sus niveles no han sido exitosas. Para encontrar una implicaci��n alternativa con el aire esta tesis propone un m��todo de investigaci��n de agentes invisibles a partir del an��lisis de sus dispositivos epist��micos. Se centra, en concreto, en los instrumentos que miden, visualizan y comunican la calidad del aire, proponiendo que no s��lo lo representan, sino que son tambi��n instrumentos que dise��an el aire y la ciudad. La noci��n de ���sensing��� (en castellano medir y sentir) es expandida, reconociendo distintas pr��cticas que reconstruyen el aire de Madrid. El resultado de esta estrategia no es s��lo la ampliaci��n de los espacios desde los que relacionarnos con el aire, sino tambi��n la legitimaci��n de pr��cticas existentes fuera de contextos cient��ficos y administrativos, como por ejemplo pr��cticas relacionadas con el cuerpo, as�� como la redistribuci��n de agencias entre m��s actores. As��, esta tesis trata sobre toxicidad, la Uni��n Europea, producci��n colaborativa, modelos de computaci��n, dolores de cabeza, kits DIY, gases, cuerpos humanos, salas de control, sangre o pol��ticos, entre otros. Los dispositivos que sirven de datos emp��ricos sirven como un ejemplo excepcional para investigar infraestructuras digitales, permitiendo desafiar nociones sobre Ciudades Inteligentes. La tesis pone especial atenci��n en los efectos del aire en el espacio p��blico, reconociendo los procesos de invisibilizaci��n que han sufrido sus infraestructuras de monitorizaci��n. Para terminar se exponen l��neas de trabajo y oportunidades para la arquitectura y el dise��o urbano a trav��s de nuevas relaciones entre infraestructuras urbanas, el medio construido, espacios dom��sticos y p��blicos y humanos y no humanos, para crear nuevas ecolog��as pol��ticas urbanas (queer). ABSTRACT This thesis examines the technical, political and spatial implications of urban air, and more specifically "air quality", in order to consider it from an architectural perspective. In opposition to understandings of the air either as a void or as a metaphor, this project proposes to inspect it from a material and technical approach, bringing the background to the fore and acknowledging its multiple agencies. Due to the scarce bibliography within the architectural field, its first aim is to construct a theoretical and analytical framework from which to consider urban air. For this purpose, the work attempts the construction of Aeropolis, a heuristic metaphor that describes the city's aero socio-material assemblage. Located at the intersection of certain currents in cultural philosophy, science and technology studies as well as feminist studies in technoscience, this framework enables a methodology and toolset to be extracted in order to approach the subject matter from different angles. The methodological tools stemming from this purpose-built framework were put to the test in a specific case study: Madrid, a highly polluted city whose air has been subject to political and social controversies, and where no effective policies or technologies have been successful in reducing its levels of pollution. In order to engage with the air, the thesis suggests a method for researching invisible agents by examining the epistemic devices involved. It locates and focuses on the instruments that sense, visualise and communicate urban air, claiming that they do not only represent it, but are also instruments that design the air and the city. The notion of "sensing" is then expanded by recognising different practices which enact the air in Madrid. The work claims that the result of this is not only the opening up of spaces for engagement but also the legitimisation of existing practices outside science and policymaking environments, such as embodied practices, as well as the redistribution of agency among more actors. So this is a thesis about toxicity, the European Union, collaborative production, scientific computational models, headaches, DIY kits, gases, human bodies, control rooms, blood, or politicians, among many others. The devices found throughout the work serve as an exceptional substrate for an investigation of digital infrastructures, enabling to challenge Smart City tropes. There is special attention paid to the effects of the air on the public space, acknowledging the silencing processes these infrastructures have been subjected to. Finally there is an outline of the opportunities arising for architecture and urban design when taking the air into account, to create new (queer) urban political ecologies between the air, urban infrastructures, the built environment, public and domestic spaces, and humans and more than humans.

Neighbourhood mobility: a longgone Paradigm? Approaching "proximity" and "land use mix" using data from home-based surveys

Policies trying to increase walking within urban mobility modal split usually highlight the importance of the functional patterns and the environmental quality of the urban space as major drivers of citizens modal choices. Functional characteristics would be mainly associated to an appropriate mix of land uses within neighbourhoods, whereas environmental quality would be associated to the characteristics of urban spaces. The purpose of this research is threefold: first, to identify relevant proxy indicators, which could characterize pedestrian-friendly land use mix and environmental quality. Second, to assess, for both traits, existing disparities among neighbourhoods in a major metropolitan area. And finally, to explore the association between both indicators and children mobility patterns: according to their built environment, which neighbourhoods have a greater proportion of children and, how is their mobility? Using data from the 2004 household mobility survey in the 128 neighbourhoods of the municipality of Madrid, this paper concludes that potentially favourable conditions at the neighbourhood level seem to have only a modest influence in,mobility patterns , in terms of both, selection of closer destinations and a higher share of walking within modal split. The city s policy choices, with intensive investment in road and public transport infrastructure may explain why short-distance mobility is not as important as it could have been expected in those neighbourhoods with more pedestrian-friendly conditions. The metropolitan transport system is providing mobility conditions, which make far-away destinations attractive to most citizens.