Modification and Developer Metrics at the Function Level: Metrics for the Study of the Evolution of a Software Project

Software evolution, and particularly its growth, has been mainly studied at the file (also sometimes referred as module) level. In this paper we propose to move from the physical towards a level that includes semantic information by using functions or methods for measuring the evolution of a software system. We point out that use of functions-based metrics has many advantages over the use of files or lines of code. We demonstrate our approach with an empirical study of two Free/Open Source projects: a community-driven project, Apache, and a company-led project, Novell Evolution. We discovered that most functions never change; when they do their number of modifications is correlated with their size, and that very few authors who modify each; finally we show that the departure of a developer from a software project slows the evolution of the functions that she authored.

Late Gothic German Vault Design Methods and Its Relationship with Spanish Ribbed Vaults

The arrival of European master masons to Burgos and Toledo during the mid-fifteenth century was essential for the promotion of the late Gothic ribbed vault design techniques in Spain. The Antigua Chapel in Seville Cathedral, designed by the Spanish master mason Simón de Colonia on 1497, provides an outstanding case study on this subject. This vault is characterized by the interlacing of the ribs near the springing, reflecting the influence of German ribbed vault designs. This paper analyses the relationship between German ribbed vaults and their design methods with those of Spanish ribbed vaults; with particular attention to the presence of ribs that cut through one another above the springing, materialized in the work of Simón de Colonia. This characteristic is reflected in some manuscripts in the German area, like the Wiener Sammlungen (15th-16th centuries) and the Codex Miniatus 3 (ca. 1560-1570), but no Spanish documents of the same period make reference to it.

Impedance of foundations using the Boundary Integral Equation Method

Dynamic soil-structure interaction has been for a long time one of the most fascinating areas for the engineering profession. The building of large alternating machines and their effects on surrounding structures as well as on their own functional behavior, provided the initial impetus; a large amount of experimental research was done,and the results of the Russian and German groups were especially worthwhile. Analytical results by Reissner and Sehkter were reexamined by Quinlan, Sung, et. al., and finally Veletsos presented the first set of reliable results. Since then, the modeling of the homogeneous, elastic halfspace as a equivalent set of springs and dashpots has become an everyday tool in soil engineering practice, especially after the appearance of the fast Fourier transportation algorithm, which makes possible the treatment of the frequency-dependent characteristics of the equivalent elements in a unified fashion with the general method of analysis of the structure. Extensions to the viscoelastic case, as well as to embedded foundations and complicated geometries, have been presented by various authors. In general, they used the finite element method with the well known problems of geometric truncations and the subsequent use of absorbing boundaries. The properties of boundary integral equation methods are, in our opinion, specially well suited to this problem, and several of the previous results have confirmed our opinion. In what follows we present the general features related to steady-state elastodynamics and a series of results showing the splendid results that the BIEM provided. Especially interesting are the outputs obtained through the use of the so-called singular elements, whose description is incorporated at the end of the paper. The reduction in time spent by the computer and the small number of elements needed to simulate realistically the global properties of the halfspace make this procedure one of the most interesting applications of the BIEM.

Prototipos experimentales modernos: la colonia de Schorlemerallee y las villas Am Rupenhorn de los Luckhardt y Anker. Berlín 1924-1930

La colonia experimental de Schorlemerallee y las villas Am Rupenhorn son dos proyectos concluidos en 1930 por los hermanos Wassili y Hans Luckhardt con Alfons Anker en Berlín. Ambos proyectos forman parte del mismo proceso, que comienza en la Colonia -una exploración sobre el lenguaje moderno en una serie de fases sucesivas- y culmina con las Villas. Éstas últimas, realizadas inmediatamente después de la Colonia, son la síntesis de esa experiencia, aunque finalmente acabaron trascendiéndola, ya que se convirtieron en un modelo sobre la casa en la naturaleza, sobre la idea de la villa clásica y sobre los nuevos modos de habitar, alcanzando con el tiempo la condición de canon moderno. A pesar de ello, no es esta condición lo más importante. Lo singular en este caso, es el propio proceso de proyecto –Colonia versus Villas- un verdadero experimento en su concepción, método y resultados, a través del cual sus autores investigan nuevas tecnologías aplicadas a nuevas formas de habitar y desarrollan un nuevo lenguaje, cuyo resultado son unos prototipos tecnológicos, con los que pretenden, como diría Mies van der Rohe: “Me he esforzado por construir una arquitectura para una sociedad tecnológica. He intentado que todo resultara razonable y claro.....para que cualquiera pueda hacer arquitectura.” El momento y lugar no pueden ser más propicios: Berlín entre 1924 y 1930, en el mismo origen del Movimiento Moderno. El experimento se plantea con auténtico rigor científico. Los arquitectos diseñan, construyen y financian su proyecto, controlando todas sus variables. Especialmente, por lo insólito, es el control de la variable económica. Porque este factor, la economía, es para ellos una clave fundamental del proceso. Se trataba de demostrar que la Nueva Arquitectura (o Neues Bauen, como les gustaba denominarla) era capaz de construir mejor y más rápido la vivienda para una nueva sociedad. La revolución y la vanguardia van de la mano: son el Zeitgeist o espíritu de la época, un contexto que es parte sustancial del proceso, y como lo calificarían los Smithson, un contexto heroico. El concepto se centra en la tríada Bauhaus: diseño + tecnología x economía. En cuanto al método, se fijan una serie de parámetros –las variables del experimento- que se agrupan en tres categorías distintas: topología, tipología y tecnología. La combinación de las variables de cada categoría dará lugar a un sistema con unas características determinadas: una definición del espacio, una forma, un lenguaje y una tecnología, características que permiten establecer las reglas para su desarrollo. Los sistemas resultantes son tres, denominados según su doble condición tipológica/ tecnológica: 1. Sistema de muro de carga: Viviendas adosadas en zig-zag o Mauerwerksbauten. 2. Sistema de esqueleto de acero: Viviendas aisladas o Stahlskelettbauten 3. Sistema de hormigón armado: Viviendas en hilera recta o Betonbauten Las villas Am Rupenhorn se plantean a continuación como verificación de este proceso: la síntesis de las categorías desarrolladas en la Colonia. Pero llegan en un momento de gracia, justo cuando los Luckhardt y Anker se encuentran profundamente implicados en el proceso de desarrollo de un nuevo lenguaje y con la reciente experiencia de la Colonia, que ha sido un éxito en casi todos los aspectos posibles. “En 1930, están en la cumbre”, como diría su mejor crítico y antiguo colaborador: Achim Wendschuh. En las Villas, los arquitectos integran su lenguaje, ya plenamente moderno, con sus experiencias previas: las que los relacionan con su reciente expresionismo (que se podría calificar como Kunstwollen) y con la tradición clásica de la cultura arquitectónica alemana: el sentido del material que deben a Semper y la sensibilidad hacia el paisaje, que toman de Schinkel. El extraordinario interés de las Villas se debe a factores como el tratamiento de la relación dual, poco habitual en la arquitectura moderna, la síntesis de lenguajes y las circunstancias de su momento histórico, factores que las han convertido en una propuesta única e irrepetible de una de las vías experimentales más interesantes y desconocidas de la Modernidad. ABSTRACT The experimental Housing Estate of Schorlemerallee and the Am Rupenhorn Villas are two projects completed by the brothers Wassili and Hans Luckhardt with Alfons Anker in Berlin in 1930. Both projects are part of the same process, starting with the Housing Estate --an exploration of the modern language in a series of phases- which culminates with the Villas project. The Villas Am Ruperhorn, designed immediately after the Housing development, are the synthesis and crowning point of this experience, even finally over passing it, since they have become a model of the house in nature, related with both the ideal of the classical villa and the new ways of life, reaching the condition of a modern canon. However, this is not its most important issue. The most remarkable condition is the project process itself -Housing versus Villas- a true experiment in concept, method and results, in which the authors research new technologies for new ways of living, developing an innovative language, with results in new prototypes, in the way Mies van der Rohe was looking for: “I have tried to make an architecture for a technological society. I have wanted to keep everything reasonable and clear… to have an architecture that anybody can do." The time and place could not be more favourable: Berlin from 1924 to 1930, in the very origin of Modern Movement. The experiment takes place with genuine scientific accuracy. Architects design, build and finance their own project, controlling all variables. Especially, and quite unusual, the control of the economic variable. Precisely the economic factor is for them a fundamental key to the process. It was shown to prove that the new architecture (or Neues Bauen, as they liked to call it) was able to build not only faster, better and more efficient dwellings for a new society, but also at lower cost. Revolution and Avant-garde use to move forward together, because they share the Zeitgeist --or time's spirit--, a context which is a substantial part of the process, and as the Alison & Peter Smithsons would describe, an heroic context. The concept focuses on the Bauhaus triad: Design + Technology x Economy. For the method, a number of variables are fixed --the experimental parameters-- that are later grouped into three distinct categories: Topology, Typology and Technology. The combination of these variables within each category gives way to several systems, with specific characteristics: a definition of space, a form, a language and a technology, thus allowing to establish the rules for its development: The resulting systems are three, called by double typological / technological issue: 1. Terraced Housing in zig-zag or Mauerwerksbauten (bearing wall system) 2. Detached Housing or Stahlskelettbauten (steel skeleton system) 3. Terraced Housing in one row or Betonbauten (reinforced concrete system) The Am Rupenhorn Villas are planned as the check of this process: the synthesis of the categories developed all through the Housing Estate research. The Am Ruperhorn project is developed in a crucial moment, just as the Luckhardts and Anker are deeply involved in the definition process of a new language after the recent experience of Schorlemerallee, which has been a success in almost all possible aspects. "In 1930, they are on the top” has said his best critic and long-time collaborator, Achim Wendschuh. In the Villas, the authors make up their fully modern language with their own background, related with their recent Expressionist trend (Kunstwollen) and with the classical tradition of the German architectural culture: the notion of material related with Semper and the sensible approach to the landscape, linked with Schinkel. Its extraordinary interest lay on diverse factors, such as dual relationships, unusual in modern architecture, synthesis of languages and circumstances of their historical moment, all factors that have become a unique and unrepeatable proposal in one of the most extraordinary experimental ways of Modernity.