Automatic expert system based on images for accuracy crop row detection in maize fields

This paper proposes an automatic expert system for accuracy crop row detection in maize fields based on images acquired from a vision system. Different applications in maize, particularly those based on site specific treatments, require the identification of the crop rows. The vision system is designed with a defined geometry and installed onboard a mobile agricultural vehicle, i.e. submitted to vibrations, gyros or uncontrolled movements. Crop rows can be estimated by applying geometrical parameters under image perspective projection. Because of the above undesired effects, most often, the estimation results inaccurate as compared to the real crop rows. The proposed expert system exploits the human knowledge which is mapped into two modules based on image processing techniques. The first one is intended for separating green plants (crops and weeds) from the rest (soil, stones and others). The second one is based on the system geometry where the expected crop lines are mapped onto the image and then a correction is applied through the well-tested and robust Theil–Sen estimator in order to adjust them to the real ones. Its performance is favorably compared against the classical Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient.

Anomaly detection on cup anemometers

The performances of two rotor-damaged commercial anemometers (Vector Instruments A100 LK) were studied. The calibration results (i.e. the transfer function) were very linear, the aerodynamic behavior being more efficient than the one shown by both anemometers equipped with undamaged rotors. No detection of the anomaly (the rotors'damage) was possible based on the calibration results. However, the Fourier analysis clearly revealed this anomaly.

Optimizing panchromatic image change detection based on change index multiband image analysis

This work proposes an optimization of a semi-supervised Change Detection methodology based on a combination of Change Indices (CI) derived from an image multitemporal data set. For this purpose, SPOT 5 Panchromatic images with 2.5 m spatial resolution have been used, from which three Change Indices have been calculated. Two of them are usually known indices; however the third one has been derived considering the Kullbak-Leibler divergence. Then, these three indices have been combined forming a multiband image that has been used in as input for a Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier where four different discriminant functions have been tested in order to differentiate between change and no_change categories. The performance of the suggested procedure has been assessed applying different quality measures, reaching in each case highly satisfactory values. These results have demonstrated that the simultaneous combination of basic change indices with others more sophisticated like the Kullback-Leibler distance, and the application of non-parametric discriminant functions like those employees in the SVM method, allows solving efficiently a change detection problem.

Non uniform embedding based on relevance analysis with reduced computational complexity: application to the detection of pathologies from biosignal recordings

Nonlinear analysis tools for studying and characterizing the dynamics of physiological signals have gained popularity, mainly because tracking sudden alterations of the inherent complexity of biological processes might be an indicator of altered physiological states. Typically, in order to perform an analysis with such tools, the physiological variables that describe the biological process under study are used to reconstruct the underlying dynamics of the biological processes. For that goal, a procedure called time-delay or uniform embedding is usually employed. Nonetheless, there is evidence of its inability for dealing with non-stationary signals, as those recorded from many physiological processes. To handle with such a drawback, this paper evaluates the utility of non-conventional time series reconstruction procedures based on non uniform embedding, applying them to automatic pattern recognition tasks. The paper compares a state of the art non uniform approach with a novel scheme which fuses embedding and feature selection at once, searching for better reconstructions of the dynamics of the system. Moreover, results are also compared with two classic uniform embedding techniques. Thus, the goal is comparing uniform and non uniform reconstruction techniques, including the one proposed in this work, for pattern recognition in biomedical signal processing tasks. Once the state space is reconstructed, the scheme followed characterizes with three classic nonlinear dynamic features (Largest Lyapunov Exponent, Correlation Dimension and Recurrence Period Density Entropy), while classification is carried out by means of a simple k-nn classifier. In order to test its generalization capabilities, the approach was tested with three different physiological databases (Speech Pathologies, Epilepsy and Heart Murmurs). In terms of the accuracy obtained to automatically detect the presence of pathologies, and for the three types of biosignals analyzed, the non uniform techniques used in this work lightly outperformed the results obtained using the uniform methods, suggesting their usefulness to characterize non-stationary biomedical signals in pattern recognition applications. On the other hand, in view of the results obtained and its low computational load, the proposed technique suggests its applicability for the applications under study.

Identification of intermediate debonding damage in FRP-plated RC beams based on multi-objective particle swarm optimization without updated baseline model

Fiber reinforced polymer composites (FRP) have found widespread usage in the repair and strengthening of concrete structures. FRP composites exhibit high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and are convenient to use in repair applications. Externally bonded FRP flexural strengthening of concrete beams is the most extended application of this technique. A common cause of failure in such members is associated with intermediate crack-induced debonding (IC debonding) of the FRP substrate from the concrete in an abrupt manner. Continuous monitoring of the concrete?FRP interface is essential to pre- vent IC debonding. Objective condition assessment and performance evaluation are challenging activities since they require some type of monitoring to track the response over a period of time. In this paper, a multi-objective model updating method integrated in the context of structural health monitoring is demonstrated as promising technology for the safety and reliability of this kind of strengthening technique. The proposed method, solved by a multi-objective extension of the particle swarm optimization method, is based on strain measurements under controlled loading. The use of permanently installed fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors embedded into the FRP-concrete interface or bonded onto the FRP strip together with the proposed methodology results in an automated method able to operate in an unsupervised mode.

Health monitoring of web plastifying dampers subjected to cyclic loading through vibration tests

This article investigates experimentally the application of health monitoring techniques to assess the damage on a particular kind of hysteretic (metallic) damper called web plastifying dampers, which are subjected to cyclic loading. In general terms, hysteretic dampers are increasingly used as passive control systems in advanced earthquake-resistant structures. Nonparametric statistical processing of the signals obtained from simple vibration tests of the web plastifying damper is used here to propose an area index damage. This area index damage is compared with an alternative energy-based index of damage proposed in past research that is based on the decomposition of the load?displacement curve experienced by the damper. Index of damage has been proven to accurately predict the level of damage and the proximity to failure of web plastifying damper, but obtaining the load?displacement curve for its direct calculation requires the use of costly instrumentation. For this reason, the aim of this study is to estimate index of damage indirectly from simple vibration tests, calling for much simpler and cheaper instrumentation, through an auxiliary index called area index damage. Web plastifying damper is a particular type of hysteretic damper that uses the out-of-plane plastic deformation of the web of I-section steel segments as a source of energy dissipation. Four I-section steel segments with similar geometry were subjected to the same pattern of cyclic loading, and the damage was evaluated with the index of damage and area index damage indexes at several stages of the loading process. A good correlation was found between area index damage and index of damage. Based on this correlation, simple formulae are proposed to estimate index of damage from the area index damage.

Assessment of expected damage on buildings subjected to Lorca earthquake through an energy-based seismic index method and nonlinear dynamic response analyses

The city of Lorca (Spain) was hit on May 11th, 2011, by two consecutive earth-quakes of magnitudes 4.6 and 5.2 Mw, causing casualties and important damage in buildings. Many of the damaged structures were reinforced concrete frames with wide beams. This study quantifies the expected level of damage on this structural type in the case of the Lorca earth-quake by means of a seismic index Iv that compares the energy input by the earthquake with the energy absorption/dissipation capacity of the structure. The prototype frames investigated represent structures designed in two time periods (1994–2002 and 2003–2008), in which the applicable codes were different. The influence of the masonry infill walls and the proneness of the frames to concentrate damage in a given story were further investigated through nonlinear dynamic response analyses. It is found that (1) the seismic index method predicts levels of damage that range from moderate/severe to complete collapse; this prediction is consistent with the observed damage; (2) the presence of masonry infill walls makes the structure very prone to damage concentration and reduces the overall seismic capacity of the building; and (3) a proper hierarchy of strength between beams and columns that guarantees the formation of a strong column-weak beam mechanism (as prescribed by seismic codes), as well as the adoption of counter-measures to avoid the negative interaction between non-structural infill walls and the main frame, would have reduced the level of damage from Iv=1 (collapse) to about Iv=0.5 (moderate/severe damage)

Region-based moving object detection using spatially conditioned nonparametric models in a GPU

A novel GPU-based nonparametric moving object detection strategy for computer vision tools requiring real-time processing is proposed. An alternative and efficient Bayesian classifier to combine nonparametric background and foreground models allows increasing correct detections while avoiding false detections. Additionally, an efficient region of interest analysis significantly reduces the computational cost of the detections.

A continuum damage model characterization based on the soft tissue mesostructure

Material properties of soft tissues are highly conditioned by the hierarchical structure of this kind of composites. These collagen-based tissues present a complex framework of fibres, fibrils, tropocollagen molecules and amino-acids. As the structural mechanisms that control the degradation of soft tissues are related with the behaviour of its fundamental constituents, the relationship between the molecular and intermolecular properties and the tissue behaviour needs to be studied.

A study of feature combination for vehicle detection based on image processing

Video analytics play a critical role in most recent traffic monitoring and driver assistance systems. In this context, the correct detection and classification of surrounding vehicles through image analysis has been the focus of extensive research in the last years. Most of the pieces of work reported for image-based vehicle verification make use of supervised classification approaches and resort to techniques, such as histograms of oriented gradients (HOG), principal component analysis (PCA), and Gabor filters, among others. Unfortunately, existing approaches are lacking in two respects: first, comparison between methods using a common body of work has not been addressed; second, no study of the combination potentiality of popular features for vehicle classification has been reported. In this study the performance of the different techniques is first reviewed and compared using a common public database. Then, the combination capabilities of these techniques are explored and a methodology is presented for the fusion of classifiers built upon them, taking into account also the vehicle pose. The study unveils the limitations of single-feature based classification and makes clear that fusion of classifiers is highly beneficial for vehicle verification.

Development and improvement of protection-system algorithms for ground-fault detection and location in synchronous machines

Uno de los defectos más frecuentes en los generadores síncronos son los defectos a tierra tanto en el devanado estatórico, como de excitación. Se produce un defecto cuando el aislamiento eléctrico entre las partes activas de cualquiera de estos devanados y tierra se reduce considerablemente o desaparece. La detección de los defectos a tierra en ambos devanados es un tema ampliamente estudiado a nivel industrial. Tras la detección y confirmación de la existencia del defecto, dicha falta debe ser localizada a lo largo del devanado para su reparación, para lo que habitualmente el rotor debe ser extraído del estator. Esta operación resulta especialmente compleja y cara. Además, el hecho de limitar la corriente de defecto en ambos devanados provoca que el defecto no sea localizable visualmente, pues apenas existe daño en el generador. Por ello, se deben aplicar técnicas muy laboriosas para localizar exactamente el defecto y poder así reparar el devanado. De cara a reducir el tiempo de reparación, y con ello el tiempo en que el generador esta fuera de servicio, cualquier información por parte del relé de protección acerca de la localización del defecto resultaría de gran utilidad. El principal objetivo de esta tesis doctoral ha sido el desarrollo de nuevos algoritmos que permitan la estimación de la localización de los defectos a tierra tanto en el devanado rotórico como estatórico de máquinas síncronas. Respecto al devanado de excitación, se ha presentado un nuevo método de localización de defectos a tierra para generadores con excitación estática. Este método permite incluso distinguir si el defecto se ha producido en el devanado de excitación, o en cualquiera de los componentes del sistema de excitación, esto es, transformador de excitación, conductores de alimentación del rectificador controlado, etc. En caso de defecto a tierra en del devanado rotórico, este método proporciona una estimación de su localización. Sin embargo, para poder obtener la localización del defecto, se precisa conocer el valor de resistencia de defecto. Por ello, en este trabajo se presenta además un nuevo método para la estimación de este parámetro de forma precisa. Finalmente, se presenta un nuevo método de detección de defectos a tierra, basado en el criterio direccional, que complementa el método de localización, permitiendo tener en cuenta la influencia de las capacidades a tierra del sistema. Estas capacidades resultan determinantes a la hora de localizar el defecto de forma adecuada. En relación con el devanado estatórico, en esta tesis doctoral se presenta un nuevo algoritmo de localización de defectos a tierra para generadores que dispongan de la protección de faltas a tierra basada en la inyección de baja frecuencia. Se ha propuesto un método general, que tiene en cuenta todos los parámetros del sistema, así como una versión simplificada del método para generadores con capacidades a tierra muy reducida, que podría resultar de fácil implementación en relés de protección comercial. Los algoritmos y métodos presentados se han validado mediante ensayos experimentales en un generador de laboratorio de 5 kVA, así como en un generador comercial de 106 MVA con resultados satisfactorios y prometedores. ABSTRACT One of the most common faults in synchronous generators is the ground fault in both the stator winding and the excitation winding. In case of fault, the insulation level between the active part of any of these windings and ground lowers considerably, or even disappears. The detection of ground faults in both windings is a very researched topic. The fault current is typically limited intentionally to a reduced level. This allows to detect easily the ground faults, and therefore to avoid damage in the generator. After the detection and confirmation of the existence of a ground fault, it should be located along the winding in order to repair of the machine. Then, the rotor has to be extracted, which is a very complex and expensive operation. Moreover, the fact of limiting the fault current makes that the insulation failure is not visually detectable, because there is no visible damage in the generator. Therefore, some laborious techniques have to apply to locate accurately the fault. In order to reduce the repair time, and therefore the time that the generator is out of service, any information about the approximate location of the fault would be very useful. The main objective of this doctoral thesis has been the development of new algorithms and methods to estimate the location of ground faults in the stator and in the rotor winding of synchronous generators. Regarding the excitation winding, a new location method of ground faults in excitation winding of synchronous machines with static excitation has been presented. This method allows even to detect if the fault is at the excitation winding, or in any other component of the excitation system: controlled rectifier, excitation transformer, etc. In case of ground fault in the rotor winding, this method provides an estimation of the fault location. However, in order to calculate the location, the value of fault resistance is necessary. Therefore, a new fault-resistance estimation algorithm is presented in this text. Finally, a new fault detection algorithm based on directional criterion is described to complement the fault location method. This algorithm takes into account the influence of the capacitance-to-ground of the system, which has a remarkable impact in the accuracy of the fault location. Regarding the stator winding, a new fault-location algorithm has been presented for stator winding of synchronous generators. This algorithm is applicable to generators with ground-fault protection based in low-frequency injection. A general algorithm, which takes every parameter of the system into account, has been presented. Moreover, a simplified version of the algorithm has been proposed for generators with especially low value of capacitance to ground. This simplified algorithm might be easily implementable in protective relays. The proposed methods and algorithms have been tested in a 5 kVA laboratory generator, as well as in a 106 MVA synchronous generator with satisfactory and promising results.

High sensitivity biosensors based on shear mode AIN resonators for in liquid operation

El diagnóstico y detección temprana de enfermedades son clave para reducir la tasa de mortalidad, las hospitalizaciones de larga duración y el desaprovechamiento de recursos. En los últimos años se ha impulsado, mediante un aumento de la financiación, el desarrollo de nuevos biosensores de bajo coste capaces de detectar y cuantificar cantidades muy pequeñas de especies biológicas de una forma barata y sencilla. El trabajo presentado en esta Tesis Doctoral describe la investigación llevada a cabo en el desarrollo de sensores gravimétricos basados en resonadores de ondas acústicas de volumen (BAW) de estructura maciza (SMR). Los dispositivos emplean películas delgadas de A1N como material piezoeléctrico y operan en modo de cizalladura, para así poder detectar especies biológicas en medio líquido. El principio de funcionamiento de estos sensores se basa en la variación que experimenta la frecuencia de resonancia al quedar una pequeña masa adherida a su superficie. Necesitan operar en modo de cizalladura para que su resonancia no se atenúe al trabajar en medio líquido, así como ofrecer una superficie capaz de ser funcionalizada específicamente para la especie biológica a detectar. El reto planteado en esta tesis requiere un acercamiento pluridisciplinar al problema que incluye el estudio de los diferentes materiales que constituyen la estructura multicapa que forma un SMR, el diseño y fabricación del dispositivo y del sistema de fluídica, la funcionalización bioquímica de la superficie del sensor, la demostración de la capacidad de detección de especies biológicas y finalmente el diseño y fabricación de la electrónica asociada para la detección de la señal eléctrica. Todas esas tareas han sido abordadas en las distintas etapas del desarrollo de esta tesis y las contribuciones más relevantes se describen en el documento. En el campo de desarrollo de los materiales, se propone un proceso en dos etapas para la pulverización reactiva de capas de A1N que contengan microcristales inclinados capaces de excitar el modo de cizalladura. Se caracteriza la velocidad acústica del modo de cizalladura en todos los materiales que componen la estructura, con el fin de poder obtener un diseño más adecuado del reflector acústico. Se propone un nuevo tipo de material aislante de alta impedancia acústica consistente en capas de W03 pulverizadas que presenta ciertas ventajas tecnológicas frente a las capas convencionales de Ta205. Respecto del diseño del transductor, se estudia la influencia que tienen los con tactos eléctricos extendidos del resonador necesarios para poder adaptar el sistema de fluídica a la estructura. Los resultados indican que es necesario trabajar sobre sustratos aislantes (tanto el soporte como el espejo acústico) para evitar efectos parásitos asociados al uso de capas metálicas bajo los electrodos del resonador que dañan su resonancia. Se analiza la influencia de las diferentes capas del dispositivo en el coeficiente de temperatura de la frecuencia (TCF) del resonador llegando a la conclusión de que las dos últimas capas del reflector acústico afectan significativamente al TCF del SMR, pudiendo reducirse ajusfando adecuadamente sus espesores. De acuerdo con los resultados de estos estudios, se han diseñado finalmente resonadores SMR operando a f .3 GHz en modo de cizalladura, con un área activa de 65000 /xm2, contactos eléctricos que se extienden f .7 mm y factores de calidad en líquido de f 50. Las extensiones eléctricas permiten adaptar el resonador a un sistema de fluídica de metacrilato. Para la detección de especies biológicas se realiza un montaje experimental que permite circular 800 ¡A por la superficie del sensor a través de un circuito cerrado que trabaja a volumen constante. La circulación de soluciones iónicas sobre el sensor descubierto pone de manifiesto que las altas frecuencias de operación previenen los cortocircuitos y por tanto el aislamiento de los electrodos es prescindible. Se desarrolla un protocolo ad-hoc de funcionalización basado en el proceso estándar APTESGlutaraldehído. Se proponen dos alternativas novedosas para la funcionalización de las áreas activas del sensor basadas en el uso de capas de oxidación de Ir02 y su activación a través de un plasma de oxígeno que no daña al dispositivo. Ambos procesos contribuyen a simplificar notablemente la funcionalización de los sensores gravimétricos. Se utilizan anticuerpos y aptámeros como receptores para detectar trombina, anticuerpo monoclonal IgG de ratón y bacteria sonicadas. Una calibración preliminar del sensor con depósitos de capas finas de Si02 de densidad y espesor conocidos permite obtener una sensibilidad de 1800 kHz/pg-cm2 y un límite de detección of 4.2 pg. Finalmente se propone el prototipo de un circuito electrónico de excitación y lectura de bajo coste diseñado empleando teoría de circuitos de microondas. Aunque su diseño y funcionamiento admite mejoras, constituye la última etapa de un sistema completo de bajo coste para el diagnóstico de especies biológicas basado en resonadores SMR de A1N. ABSTRACT Early diagnosis and detection of diseases are essential for reducing mortality rate and preventing long-term hospitalization and waste of resources. These requirements have boosted the efforts and funding on the research of accurate and reliable means for detection and quantification of biological species, also known as biosensors. The work presented in this thesis describes the development and fabrication of gravimetric biosensors based on piezoelectric AlN bulk acoustic wave (BAW) solidly mounted resonators (SMRs) for detection of biological species in liquid media. These type of devices base their sensing principles in the variation that their resonant frequency suffers when a mass is attached to their surface. They need to operate in the shear mode to maintain a strong resonance in liquid and an adequate functionalisation of their sensing area to guarantee that only the targeted molecules cause the shift. The challenges that need to be overcome to achieve piezoelectric BAW resonators for high sensitivity detection in fluids require a multidisciplinary approach, that include the study of the materials involved, the design of the device and the fluidic system, the biochemical functionalisation of the active area, the experimental proof-of-concept with different target species and the design of an electronic readout circuit. All this tasks have been tackled at different stages of the thesis and the relevant contributions are described in the document. In the field of materials, a two-stage sputtering deposition process has been developed to obtain good-quality AlN films with uniformly tilted grains required to excite the shear mode. The shear acoustic velocities of the materials composing the acoustic reflector have been accurately studied to ensure an optimum design of the reflector stack. WO3 sputtered films have been proposed as high acoustic impedance material for insulating acoustic reflectors. They display several technological advantages for the processing of the resonators. Regarding the design, a study of the influence of the electrical extensions necessary to fit a fluidic system on the performance of the devices has been performed. The results indicate that high resistivity substrates and insulating reflectors are necessary to avoid the hindering of the resonance due to the parasitic effects induced by the extensions. The influence of the different layers of the stack on the resultant TCF of the SMRs has also been investigated. The two layers of the reflector closer to the piezoelectric layer have a significant influence on the TCF, which can be reduced by modifying their thicknesses accordingly. The data provided by these studies has led to the final design of the devices, which operate at 1.3 GHz in the shear mode and display an active area of 65000 /xm2 and electrical extensions of 1.7 mm while keeping a Qahear=150 in liquid. The extensions enable to fit a custom-made fluidic system made of methacrylate. To perform the biosensing experiments, an experimental setup with a liquid closed circuit operating at constant flow has been developed. Buffers of ionic characteristics have been tested on non-isolated devices, revealing that high operation frequencies prevent the risk of short circuit. An ad-hoc functionalisation protocol based on the standard APTES - Glutaraldehyde process has been developed. It includes two new processes that simplify the fabrication of the transducers: the use of IrO2 as oxidation layer and its functionalisation through an O2 plasma treatment that does not damage the resonators. Both antibodies and aptamers are used as receptors. In liquid sensing proof-of-concept experiments with thrombin, IgG mouse monoclonal antibody and sonicated bacteria have been displayed. A preliminary calibration of the devices using SiO2 layers reveals a sensitivity of 1800 kHz/pg-cm2 and a limit of detection of 4.2 pg. Finally, a first prototype of a low-cost electronic readout circuit designed using a standard microwave approach has been developed. Although its performance can be significantly improved, it is an effective first approach to the final stage of a portable low-cost diagnostic system based on shear mode AlN SMRs.

Bridge damage identification from moving load induced deflection based on wavelet transform and Lipschitz exponent

The wavelet transform and Lipschitz exponent perform well in detecting signal singularity.With the bridge crack damage modeled as rotational springs based on fracture mechanics, the deflection time history of the beam under the moving load is determined with a numerical method. The continuous wavelet transformation (CWT) is applied to the deflection of the beam to identify the location of the damage, and the Lipschitz exponent is used to evaluate the damage degree. The influence of different damage degrees,multiple damage, different sensor locations, load velocity and load magnitude are studied.Besides, the feasibility of this method is verified by a model experiment.

A regularised continuum damage model based on the mesoscopic scale for soft tissue

Material properties of soft fibrous tissues are highly conditioned by the hierarchical structure of this kind of composites. Collagen based tissues present, at decreasing length scales, a complex framework of fibres, fibrils, tropocollagen molecules and amino-acids. Understanding the mechanical behaviour at nano-scale level is critical to accurately incorporate this structural information in phenomenological damage models. In this work we derive a relationship between the mechanical and geometrical properties of the fibril constituents and the soft tissue material parameters at macroscopic scale. A Hodge–Petruska two-dimensional model has been used to describe the fibrils as staggered arrays of tropocollagen molecules. After a mechanical characterisation of each of the fibril components, two fibril failures modes have been defined related with two planes of weakness. A phenomenological continuous damage model with regularised softening was presented along with meso-structurally based definitions for its material parameters. Finally, numerical analysis at fibril, fibre and tissue levels are presented to show the capabilities of the model