A model to develop a platform for personalised health applications

Antecedentes Europa vive una situación insostenible. Desde el 2008 se han reducido los recursos de los gobiernos a raíz de la crisis económica. El continente Europeo envejece con ritmo constante al punto que se prevé que en 2050 habrá sólo dos trabajadores por jubilado [54]. A esta situación se le añade el aumento de la incidencia de las enfermedades crónicas, relacionadas con el envejecimiento, cuyo coste puede alcanzar el 7% del PIB de un país [51]. Es necesario un cambio de paradigma. Una nueva manera de cuidar de la salud de las personas: sustentable, eficaz y preventiva más que curativa. Algunos estudios abogan por el cuidado personalizado de la salud (pHealth). En este modelo las prácticas médicas son adaptadas e individualizadas al paciente, desde la detección de los factores de riesgo hasta la personalización de los tratamientos basada en la respuesta del individuo [81]. El cuidado personalizado de la salud está asociado a menudo al uso de las tecnologías de la información y comunicación (TICs) que, con su desarrollo exponencial, ofrecen oportunidades interesantes para la mejora de la salud. El cambio de paradigma hacia el pHealth está lentamente ocurriendo, tanto en el ámbito de la investigación como en la industria, pero todavía no de manera significativa. Existen todavía muchas barreras relacionadas a la economía, a la política y la cultura. También existen barreras puramente tecnológicas, como la falta de sistemas de información interoperables [199]. A pesar de que los aspectos de interoperabilidad están evolucionando, todavía hace falta un diseño de referencia especialmente direccionado a la implementación y el despliegue en gran escala de sistemas basados en pHealth. La presente Tesis representa un intento de organizar la disciplina de la aplicación de las TICs al cuidado personalizado de la salud en un modelo de referencia, que permita la creación de plataformas de desarrollo de software para simplificar tareas comunes de desarrollo en este dominio. Preguntas de investigación RQ1 >Es posible definir un modelo, basado en técnicas de ingeniería del software, que represente el dominio del cuidado personalizado de la salud de una forma abstracta y representativa? RQ2 >Es posible construir una plataforma de desarrollo basada en este modelo? RQ3 >Esta plataforma ayuda a los desarrolladores a crear sistemas pHealth complejos e integrados? Métodos Para la descripción del modelo se adoptó el estándar ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010por ser lo suficientemente general y abstracto para el amplio enfoque de esta tesis [25]. El modelo está definido en varias partes: un modelo conceptual, expresado a través de mapas conceptuales que representan las partes interesadas (stakeholders), los artefactos y la información compartida; y escenarios y casos de uso para la descripción de sus funcionalidades. El modelo fue desarrollado de acuerdo a la información obtenida del análisis de la literatura, incluyendo 7 informes industriales y científicos, 9 estándares, 10 artículos en conferencias, 37 artículos en revistas, 25 páginas web y 5 libros. Basándose en el modelo se definieron los requisitos para la creación de la plataforma de desarrollo, enriquecidos por otros requisitos recolectados a través de una encuesta realizada a 11 ingenieros con experiencia en la rama. Para el desarrollo de la plataforma, se adoptó la metodología de integración continua [74] que permitió ejecutar tests automáticos en un servidor y también desplegar aplicaciones en una página web. En cuanto a la metodología utilizada para la validación se adoptó un marco para la formulación de teorías en la ingeniería del software [181]. Esto requiere el desarrollo de modelos y proposiciones que han de ser validados dentro de un ámbito de investigación definido, y que sirvan para guiar al investigador en la búsqueda de la evidencia necesaria para justificarla. La validación del modelo fue desarrollada mediante una encuesta online en tres rondas con un número creciente de invitados. El cuestionario fue enviado a 134 contactos y distribuido en algunos canales públicos como listas de correo y redes sociales. El objetivo era evaluar la legibilidad del modelo, su nivel de cobertura del dominio y su potencial utilidad en el diseño de sistemas derivados. El cuestionario incluía preguntas cuantitativas de tipo Likert y campos para recolección de comentarios. La plataforma de desarrollo fue validada en dos etapas. En la primera etapa se utilizó la plataforma en un experimento a pequeña escala, que consistió en una sesión de entrenamiento de 12 horas en la que 4 desarrolladores tuvieron que desarrollar algunos casos de uso y reunirse en un grupo focal para discutir su uso. La segunda etapa se realizó durante los tests de un proyecto en gran escala llamado HeartCycle [160]. En este proyecto un equipo de diseñadores y programadores desarrollaron tres aplicaciones en el campo de las enfermedades cardio-vasculares. Una de estas aplicaciones fue testeada en un ensayo clínico con pacientes reales. Al analizar el proyecto, el equipo de desarrollo se reunió en un grupo focal para identificar las ventajas y desventajas de la plataforma y su utilidad. Resultados Por lo que concierne el modelo que describe el dominio del pHealth, la parte conceptual incluye una descripción de los roles principales y las preocupaciones de los participantes, un modelo de los artefactos TIC que se usan comúnmente y un modelo para representar los datos típicos que son necesarios formalizar e intercambiar entre sistemas basados en pHealth. El modelo funcional incluye un conjunto de 18 escenarios, repartidos en: punto de vista de la persona asistida, punto de vista del cuidador, punto de vista del desarrollador, punto de vista de los proveedores de tecnologías y punto de vista de las autoridades; y un conjunto de 52 casos de uso repartidos en 6 categorías: actividades de la persona asistida, reacciones del sistema, actividades del cuidador, \engagement" del usuario, actividades del desarrollador y actividades de despliegue. Como resultado del cuestionario de validación del modelo, un total de 65 personas revisó el modelo proporcionando su nivel de acuerdo con las dimensiones evaluadas y un total de 248 comentarios sobre cómo mejorar el modelo. Los conocimientos de los participantes variaban desde la ingeniería del software (70%) hasta las especialidades médicas (15%), con declarado interés en eHealth (24%), mHealth (16%), Ambient Assisted Living (21%), medicina personalizada (5%), sistemas basados en pHealth (15%), informática médica (10%) e ingeniería biomédica (8%) con una media de 7.25_4.99 años de experiencia en estas áreas. Los resultados de la encuesta muestran que los expertos contactados consideran el modelo fácil de leer (media de 1.89_0.79 siendo 1 el valor más favorable y 5 el peor), suficientemente abstracto (1.99_0.88) y formal (2.13_0.77), con una cobertura suficiente del dominio (2.26_0.95), útil para describir el dominio (2.02_0.7) y para generar sistemas más específicos (2_0.75). Los expertos también reportan un interés parcial en utilizar el modelo en su trabajo (2.48_0.91). Gracias a sus comentarios, el modelo fue mejorado y enriquecido con conceptos que faltaban, aunque no se pudo demonstrar su mejora en las dimensiones evaluadas, dada la composición diferente de personas en las tres rondas de evaluación. Desde el modelo, se generó una plataforma de desarrollo llamada \pHealth Patient Platform (pHPP)". La plataforma desarrollada incluye librerías, herramientas de programación y desarrollo, un tutorial y una aplicación de ejemplo. Se definieron cuatro módulos principales de la arquitectura: el Data Collection Engine, que permite abstraer las fuentes de datos como sensores o servicios externos, mapeando los datos a bases de datos u ontologías, y permitiendo interacción basada en eventos; el GUI Engine, que abstrae la interfaz de usuario en un modelo de interacción basado en mensajes; y el Rule Engine, que proporciona a los desarrolladores un medio simple para programar la lógica de la aplicación en forma de reglas \if-then". Después de que la plataforma pHPP fue utilizada durante 5 años en el proyecto HeartCycle, 5 desarrolladores fueron reunidos en un grupo de discusión para analizar y evaluar la plataforma. De estas evaluaciones se concluye que la plataforma fue diseñada para encajar las necesidades de los ingenieros que trabajan en la rama, permitiendo la separación de problemas entre las distintas especialidades, y simplificando algunas tareas de desarrollo como el manejo de datos y la interacción asíncrona. A pesar de ello, se encontraron algunos defectos a causa de la inmadurez de algunas tecnologías empleadas, y la ausencia de algunas herramientas específicas para el dominio como el procesado de datos o algunos protocolos de comunicación relacionados con la salud. Dentro del proyecto HeartCycle la plataforma fue utilizada para el desarrollo de la aplicación \Guided Exercise", un sistema TIC para la rehabilitación de pacientes que han sufrido un infarto del miocardio. El sistema fue testeado en un ensayo clínico randomizado en el cual a 55 pacientes se les dio el sistema para su uso por 21 semanas. De los resultados técnicos del ensayo se puede concluir que, a pesar de algunos errores menores prontamente corregidos durante el estudio, la plataforma es estable y fiable. Conclusiones La investigación llevada a cabo en esta Tesis y los resultados obtenidos proporcionan las respuestas a las tres preguntas de investigación que motivaron este trabajo: RQ1 Se ha desarrollado un modelo para representar el dominio de los sistemas personalizados de salud. La evaluación hecha por los expertos de la rama concluye que el modelo representa el dominio con precisión y con un balance apropiado entre abstracción y detalle. RQ2 Se ha desarrollado, con éxito, una plataforma de desarrollo basada en el modelo. RQ3 Se ha demostrado que la plataforma es capaz de ayudar a los desarrolladores en la creación de software pHealth complejos. Las ventajas de la plataforma han sido demostradas en el ámbito de un proyecto de gran escala, aunque el enfoque genérico adoptado indica que la plataforma podría ofrecer beneficios también en otros contextos. Los resultados de estas evaluaciones ofrecen indicios de que, ambos, el modelo y la plataforma serán buenos candidatos para poderse convertir en una referencia para futuros desarrollos de sistemas pHealth. ABSTRACT Background Europe is living in an unsustainable situation. The economic crisis has been reducing governments' economic resources since 2008 and threatening social and health systems, while the proportion of older people in the European population continues to increase so that it is foreseen that in 2050 there will be only two workers per retiree [54]. To this situation it should be added the rise, strongly related to age, of chronic diseases the burden of which has been estimated to be up to the 7% of a country's gross domestic product [51]. There is a need for a paradigm shift, the need for a new way of caring for people's health, shifting the focus from curing conditions that have arisen to a sustainable and effective approach with the emphasis on prevention. Some advocate the adoption of personalised health care (pHealth), a model where medical practices are tailored to the patient's unique life, from the detection of risk factors to the customization of treatments based on each individual's response [81]. Personalised health is often associated to the use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT), that, with its exponential development, offers interesting opportunities for improving healthcare. The shift towards pHealth is slowly taking place, both in research and in industry, but the change is not significant yet. Many barriers still exist related to economy, politics and culture, while others are purely technological, like the lack of interoperable information systems [199]. Though interoperability aspects are evolving, there is still the need of a reference design, especially tackling implementation and large scale deployment of pHealth systems. This thesis contributes to organizing the subject of ICT systems for personalised health into a reference model that allows for the creation of software development platforms to ease common development issues in the domain. Research questions RQ1 Is it possible to define a model, based on software engineering techniques, for representing the personalised health domain in an abstract and representative way? RQ2 Is it possible to build a development platform based on this model? RQ3 Does the development platform help developers create complex integrated pHealth systems? Methods As method for describing the model, the ISO/IEC/IEEE 42010 framework [25] is adopted for its generality and high level of abstraction. The model is specified in different parts: a conceptual model, which makes use of concept maps, for representing stakeholders, artefacts and shared information, and in scenarios and use cases for the representation of the functionalities of pHealth systems. The model was derived from literature analysis, including 7 industrial and scientific reports, 9 electronic standards, 10 conference proceedings papers, 37 journal papers, 25 websites and 5 books. Based on the reference model, requirements were drawn for building the development platform enriched with a set of requirements gathered in a survey run among 11 experienced engineers. For developing the platform, the continuous integration methodology [74] was adopted which allowed to perform automatic tests on a server and also to deploy packaged releases on a web site. As a validation methodology, a theory building framework for SW engineering was adopted from [181]. The framework, chosen as a guide to find evidence for justifying the research questions, imposed the creation of theories based on models and propositions to be validated within a scope. The validation of the model was conducted as an on-line survey in three validation rounds, encompassing a growing number of participants. The survey was submitted to 134 experts of the field and on some public channels like relevant mailing lists and social networks. Its objective was to assess the model's readability, its level of coverage of the domain and its potential usefulness in the design of actual, derived systems. The questionnaires included quantitative Likert scale questions and free text inputs for comments. The development platform was validated in two scopes. As a small-scale experiment, the platform was used in a 12 hours training session where 4 developers had to perform an exercise consisting in developing a set of typical pHealth use cases At the end of the session, a focus group was held to identify benefits and drawbacks of the platform. The second validation was held as a test-case study in a large scale research project called HeartCycle the aim of which was to develop a closed-loop disease management system for heart failure and coronary heart disease patients [160]. During this project three applications were developed by a team of programmers and designers. One of these applications was tested in a clinical trial with actual patients. At the end of the project, the team was interviewed in a focus group to assess the role the platform had within the project. Results For what regards the model that describes the pHealth domain, its conceptual part includes a description of the main roles and concerns of pHealth stakeholders, a model of the ICT artefacts that are commonly adopted and a model representing the typical data that need to be formalized among pHealth systems. The functional model includes a set of 18 scenarios, divided into assisted person's view, caregiver's view, developer's view, technology and services providers' view and authority's view, and a set of 52 Use Cases grouped in 6 categories: assisted person's activities, system reactions, caregiver's activities, user engagement, developer's activities and deployer's activities. For what concerns the validation of the model, a total of 65 people participated in the online survey providing their level of agreement in all the assessed dimensions and a total of 248 comments on how to improve and complete the model. Participants' background spanned from engineering and software development (70%) to medical specialities (15%), with declared interest in the fields of eHealth (24%), mHealth (16%), Ambient Assisted Living (21%), Personalized Medicine (5%), Personal Health Systems (15%), Medical Informatics (10%) and Biomedical Engineering (8%) with an average of 7.25_4.99 years of experience in these fields. From the analysis of the answers it is possible to observe that the contacted experts considered the model easily readable (average of 1.89_0.79 being 1 the most favourable scoring and 5 the worst), sufficiently abstract (1.99_0.88) and formal (2.13_0.77) for its purpose, with a sufficient coverage of the domain (2.26_0.95), useful for describing the domain (2.02_0.7) and for generating more specific systems (2_0.75) and they reported a partial interest in using the model in their job (2.48_0.91). Thanks to their comments, the model was improved and enriched with concepts that were missing at the beginning, nonetheless it was not possible to prove an improvement among the iterations, due to the diversity of the participants in the three rounds. From the model, a development platform for the pHealth domain was generated called pHealth Patient Platform (pHPP). The platform includes a set of libraries, programming and deployment tools, a tutorial and a sample application. The main four modules of the architecture are: the Data Collection Engine, which allows abstracting sources of information like sensors or external services, mapping data to databases and ontologies, and allowing event-based interaction and filtering, the GUI Engine, which abstracts the user interface in a message-like interaction model, the Workow Engine, which allows programming the application's user interaction ows with graphical workows, and the Rule Engine, which gives developers a simple means for programming the application's logic in the form of \if-then" rules. After the 5 years experience of HeartCycle, partially programmed with pHPP, 5 developers were joined in a focus group to discuss the advantages and drawbacks of the platform. The view that emerged from the training course and the focus group was that the platform is well-suited to the needs of the engineers working in the field, it allowed the separation of concerns among the different specialities and it simplified some common development tasks like data management and asynchronous interaction. Nevertheless, some deficiencies were pointed out in terms of a lack of maturity of some technological choices, and for the absence of some domain-specific tools, e.g. for data processing or for health-related communication protocols. Within HeartCycle, the platform was used to develop part of the Guided Exercise system, a composition of ICT tools for the physical rehabilitation of patients who suffered from myocardial infarction. The system developed using the platform was tested in a randomized controlled clinical trial, in which 55 patients used the system for 21 weeks. The technical results of this trial showed that the system was stable and reliable. Some minor bugs were detected, but these were promptly corrected using the platform. This shows that the platform, as well as facilitating the development task, can be successfully used to produce reliable software. Conclusions The research work carried out in developing this thesis provides responses to the three three research questions that were the motivation for the work. RQ1 A model was developed representing the domain of personalised health systems, and the assessment of experts in the field was that it represents the domain accurately, with an appropriate balance between abstraction and detail. RQ2 A development platform based on the model was successfully developed. RQ3 The platform has been shown to assist developers create complex pHealth software. This was demonstrated within the scope of one large-scale project, but the generic approach adopted provides indications that it would offer benefits more widely. The results of these evaluations provide indications that both the model and the platform are good candidates for being a reference for future pHealth developments.

Presentation and discussion of the UAM/exercise I-1b: "Pin-Cell Burn-Up Benchmark" with the hybrid method

The aim of this work is to present the Exercise I-1b “pin-cell burn-up benchmark” proposed in the framework of OECD LWR UAM. Its objective is to address the uncertainty due to the basic nuclear data as well as the impact of processing the nuclear and covariance data in a pin-cell depletion calculation. Four different sensitivity/uncertainty propagation methodologies participate in this benchmark (GRS, NRG, UPM, and SNU&KAERI). The paper describes the main features of the UPM model (hybrid method) compared with other methodologies. The requested output provided by UPM is presented, and it is discussed regarding the results of other methodologies.

An embedded cohesive crack model for finite element analysis of quasi-brittle materials

This paper presents a numerical implementation of the cohesive crack model for the anal-ysis of quasibrittle materials based on the strong discontinuity approach in the framework of the finite element method. A simple central force model is used for the stress versus crack opening curve. The additional degrees of freedom defining the crack opening are determined at the crack level, thus avoiding the need for performing a static condensation at the element level. The need for a tracking algorithm is avoided by using a consistent pro-cedure for the selection of the separated nodes. Such a model is then implemented into a commercial program by means of a user subroutine, consequently being contrasted with the experimental results. The model takes into account the anisotropy of the material. Numerical simulations of well-known experiments are presented to show the ability of the proposed model to simulate the fracture of quasibrittle materials such as mortar, concrete and masonry.

Including functional usability features in a Model-Driven Development Method

The Software Engineering (SE) community has historically focused on working with models to represent functionality and persistence, pushing interaction modelling into the background, which has been covered by the Human Computer Interaction (HCI) community. Recently, adequately modelling interaction, and specifically usability, is being considered as a key factor for success in user acceptance, making the integration of the SE and HCI communities more necessary. If we focus on the Model-Driven Development (MDD) paradigm, we notice that there is a lack of proposals to deal with usability features from the very first steps of software development process. In general, usability features are manually implemented once the code has been generated from models. This contradicts the MDD paradigm, which claims that all the analysts? effort must be focused on building models, and the code generation is relegated to model to code transformations. Moreover, usability features related to functionality may involve important changes in the system architecture if they are not considered from the early steps. We state that these usability features related to functionality can be represented abstractly in a conceptual model, and their implementation can be carried out automatically.

Damage mechanisms of 3D woven hybrid composites in tension. Testing, inspection and simulation

Delamination reduces the strenght of the composites, mainly in compression. Several methods exist to overcome this problem, but they are either not feasible for large scale production or too expensive. 3D composites are a promising solution.

New concepts and techniques for the development of high-efficiency concentrating photovoltaic modules

El interés por los sistemas fotovoltaicos de concentración (CPV) ha resurgido en los últimos años amparado por el desarrollo de células multiunión de muy alta eficiencia basadas en semiconductores de los grupos III-V. Estas células han permitido obtener módulos de concentración con eficiencias que prácticamente duplican las del panel plano y que llegan al 35% en los módulos récord. Esta tesis está dedicada al diseño y la implementación experimental de nuevos conceptos que permitan obtener módulos CPV que no sólo alcancen una eficiencia alta en condiciones estándar sino que, además, sean lo suficientemente tolerantes a errores de montaje, seguimiento, temperatura y variaciones espectrales para que la energía que producen a lo largo del año sea máxima. Una de las primeras cuestiones que se abordan es el diseño de elementos ópticos secundarios para sistemas cuyo primario es una lente de Fresnel y que permiten, para una concentración fija, aumentar el ángulo de aceptancia y la tolerancia del sistema. Varios secundarios reflexivos y refractivos han sido diseñados y analizados mediante trazado de rayos. En particular, utilizando óptica anidólica y basándose en el diseño de una sola etapa conocido como ‘concentrador dieléctrico que funciona por reflexión total interna‘, se ha diseñado, fabricado y caracterizado un secundario con salida cuadrada que, usado junto con una lente de Fresnel, permite alcanzar simultáneamente una elevada eficiencia, concentración y aceptancia. Además, se ha propuesto y prototipado un método alternativo de fabricación para otro de los secundarios, denominado domo, consistente en el sobremoldeo de silicona sobre células solares. Una de las características que impregna todo el trabajo realizado en esta tesis es la aproximación holística en el diseño de módulos CPV, es decir, se ha prestado especial atención al diseño conjunto de la célula y la óptica para garantizar que el sistema total alcance la mayor eficiencia posible. En este sentido muchos sistemas ópticos desarrollados en esta tesis han sido diseñados, caracterizados y optimizados teniendo en cuenta que el ajuste de corriente entre las distintas subcélulas que comprenden la célula multiunión bajo el concentrador sea muy próximo a uno. La capa antirreflectante sobre la célula funciona, en cierto modo, como interfaz entre la óptica y la célula, por lo que se ha diseñado un método de optimización de capas antirreflectantes que considera no sólo el amplio rango de longitudes de onda para el que las células multiunión son sensibles sino también la distribución angular de intensidad sobre la célula creada por la óptica de concentración. Además, la cuestión de la falta de uniformidad también se ha abordado mediante la comparación de las distribuciones espectrales y espaciales de irradiancia que crean diferentes ópticas (simuladas mediante trazado de rayos y fotografiadas) y las pérdidas de eficiencia que experimentan las células iluminadas por dichas ópticas de concentración medidas experimentalmente. El efecto de la temperatura en la óptica de concentración también ha sido objeto de estudio de esta tesis. En particular, mediante simulaciones de elementos finitos se han dado los primeros pasos para el análisis de las deformaciones que sufren los dientes de las lentes de Fresnel híbridas (vidrio-silicona), así como el cambio de índice de refracción con la temperatura y la influencia de ambos efectos sobre el funcionamiento de los sistemas. Se ha implementado un modelo que tiene por objeto considerar las variaciones ambientales, principalmente temperatura y contenido espectral de la radiación directa, así como las sensibilidades térmica y espectral de los sistemas CPV, con el fin de maximizar la energía producida por un módulo de concentración a lo largo de un año en un emplazamiento determinado. Los capítulos 5 y 6 de este libro están dedicados al diseño, fabricación y caracterización de un nuevo concepto de módulo fotovoltaico denominado FluidReflex y basado en una única etapa reflexiva con dieléctrico fluido. En este nuevo concepto la presencia del fluido aporta algunas ventajas significativas como son: un aumento del producto concentración por aceptancia (CAP, en sus siglas en inglés) alcanzable al rodear la célula con un medio cuyo índice de refracción es mayor que uno, una mejora de la eficiencia óptica al disminuir las pérdidas por reflexión de Fresnel en varias interfaces, una mejora de la disipación térmica ya que el calor que se concentra junto a la célula se trasmite por convección natural y conducción en el fluido y un aislamiento eléctrico mejorado. Mediante la construcción y medida de varios prototipos de unidad elemental se ha demostrado que no existe ninguna razón fundamental que impida la implementación práctica del concepto teórico alcanzando una elevada eficiencia. Se ha realizado un análisis de fluidos candidatos probando la existencia de al menos dos de ellos que cumplen todos los requisitos (en particular el de estabilidad bajo condiciones de luz concentrada) para formar parte del sistema de concentración FluidReflex. Por ´ultimo, se han diseñado, fabricado y caracterizado varios prototipos preindustriales de módulos FluidReflex para lo cual ha sido necesario optimizar el proceso de fabricación de la óptica multicavidad a fin de mantener el buen comportamiento óptico obtenido en la fabricación de la unidad elemental. Los distintos prototipos han sido medidos, tanto en el laboratorio como bajo el sol real, analizando el ajuste de corriente de la célula iluminada por el concentrador FluidReflex bajo diferentes distribuciones espectrales de la radiación incidente así como el excelente comportamiento térmico del módulo. ABSTRACT A renewed interest in concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) systems has emerged in recent years encouraged by the development of high-efficiency multijunction solar cells based in IIIV semiconductors that have led to CPV module efficiencies which practically double that of flat panel PV and which reach 35% for record modules. This thesis is devoted to the design and experimental implementation of new concepts for obtaining CPV modules that not only achieve high efficiency under standard conditions but also have such a wide tolerance to assembly errors, tracking, temperature and spectral variations, that the energy generated by them throughout the year is maximized. One of the first addressed issues is the design of secondary optical elements whose primary optics is a Fresnel lens and which, for a fixed concentration, allow an increased acceptance angle and tolerance of the system. Several reflective and refractive secondaries have been designed and analyzed using ray tracing. In particular, using nonimaging optics and based on the single-stage design known as ‘dielectric totally internally reflecting concentrator’, a secondary with square output has been designed, fabricated and characterized. Used together with a Fresnel lens, the secondary can simultaneously achieve high efficiency, concentration and acceptance. Furthermore, an alternative method has been proposed and prototyped for the fabrication of the secondary named dome. The optics is manufactured by direct overmolding of silicone over the solar cells. One characteristic that permeates all the work done in this thesis is the holistic approach in the design of CPV modules, meaning that special attention has been paid to the joint design of the solar cell and the optics to ensure that the total system achieves the highest attainable efficiency. In this regard, many optical systems developed in the thesis have been designed, characterized and optimized considering that the current matching among the subcells within the multijunction solar cell beneath the optics must be close to one. Antireflective coating over the cell acts, somehow, as an interface between the optics and the cell. Consequently, a method has been designed to optimize antireflective coatings that takes into account not only the broad wavelength range that multijunction solar cells are sensitive to but also the angular intensity distribution created by the concentrating optics. In addition, the issue of non-uniformity has also been addressed by comparing the spectral and spatial distributions of irradiance created by different optics (simulated by ray tracing and photographed) and the efficiency losses experienced by cells illuminated by those concentrating optics experimentally determined. The effect of temperature on the concentrating optics has also been studied in this thesis. In particular, finite element simulations have been use to analyze the deformations experienced by the facets of hybrid (silicon-glass) Fresnel lenses, the change of refractive index with temperature and the influence of both effects on the system performance. A model has been implemented which take into consideration atmospheric variations, mainly temperature and spectral content of the direct normal irradiance, as well as thermal and spectral sensitivities of systems, with the aim of maximizing the energy harvested by a CPV module throughout the year in a particular location. Chapters 5 and 6 of this book are devoted to the design, fabrication, and characterization of a new concentrator concept named FluidReflex and based on a single-stage reflective optics with fluid dielectric. In this new concept, the presence of the fluid provides some significant advantages such as: an increased concentration acceptance angle product (CAP) achievable by surrounding the cell with a medium whose refractive index is greater than one, an improvement of the optical efficiency by reducing losses due to Fresnel reflection at several interfaces, an improvement in heat dissipation as the heat concentrated near the cell is transmitted by natural convection and conduction in the fluid, and an improved electrical insulation. By fabricating and characterizing several elementary-unit prototypes it was shown that there is no fundamental reason that prevents the practical implementation of this theoretical concept reaching high efficiency. Several fluid candidates were investigated proving the existence of at least to fluids that meet all the requirements (including the stability under concentrated light) to become part of the FluidReflex concentrator. Finally, several pre-industrial FluidReflex module prototypes have been designed and fabricated. An optimization process for the manufacturing of the multicavity optics was necessary to attain such an optics quality as the one achieved by the single unit. The module prototypes have been measured, both indoors and outdoors, analyzing the current matching of the solar cells beneath the concentrator for different spectral distribution of the incident irradiance. Additionally, the module showed an excellent thermal performance.

Efficient hybrid monocular-stereo approach to on-board, video-based traffic sign detection and tracking

In this paper we propose an innovative method for the automatic detection and tracking of road traffic signs using an onboard stereo camera. It involves a combination of monocular and stereo analysis strategies to increase the reliability of the detections such that it can boost the performance of any traffic sign recognition scheme. Firstly, an adaptive color and appearance based detection is applied at single camera level to generate a set of traffic sign hypotheses. In turn, stereo information allows for sparse 3D reconstruction of potential traffic signs through a SURF-based matching strategy. Namely, the plane that best fits the cloud of 3D points traced back from feature matches is estimated using a RANSAC based approach to improve robustness to outliers. Temporal consistency of the 3D information is ensured through a Kalman-based tracking stage. This also allows for the generation of a predicted 3D traffic sign model, which is in turn used to enhance the previously mentioned color-based detector through a feedback loop, thus improving detection accuracy. The proposed solution has been tested with real sequences under several illumination conditions and in both urban areas and highways, achieving very high detection rates in challenging environments, including rapid motion and significant perspective distortion

Instituto de Sistemas Fotovoltaicos de Concentración concentration photovoltaics hybrid system first year of operation and improvements

A photovoltaic (PV) hybrid system combines PV with other forms of electricity generation, usually a diesel generator. The system presented in this paper uses concentration photovoltaic (CPV) as the main generator in combination with a storage system and the grid, configured as the backup power supply. The load of the system consists of an air conditioning system of an office building. This paper presents the results obtained from the first months of operation of the CPV hybrid system installed at Instituto de Sistemas Fotovoltaicos de Concentración facilities together with exhaustive simulations in order to model the system behaviour and be able to improve the self-consumption ratio. This system represents a first approach to the use of a CPV in office buildings complemented by an existing AC-coupled hybrid system. The contribution of this paper to the analysis of this new system and the existing tools available for its simulation, at least a part of it, can be considered as a starting point for the development of these kinds of systems.

Inverse kinematics of a humanoid robot with non-spherical hip: a hybrid algorithm approach

This paper describes an approach to solve the inverse kinematics problem of humanoid robots whose construction shows a small but non negligible offset at the hip which prevents any purely analytical solution to be developed. Knowing that a purely numerical solution is not feasible due to variable efficiency problems, the proposed one first neglects the offset presence in order to obtain an approximate “solution” by means of an analytical algorithm based on screw theory, and then uses it as the initial condition of a numerical refining procedure based on the Levenberg‐Marquardt algorithm. In this way, few iterations are needed for any specified attitude, making it possible to implement the algorithm for real‐time applications. As a way to show the algorithm’s implementation, one case of study is considered throughout the paper, represented by the SILO2 humanoid robot.

Modelling and Control of Stepper Motors for High Accuracy Positioning Systems Used in Radioactive Environments

Hybrid Stepper Motors are widely used in open-loop position applications. They are the choice of actuation for the collimators in the Large Hadron Collider, the largest particle accelerator at CERN. In this case the positioning requirements and the highly radioactive operating environment are unique. The latter forces both the use of long cables to connect the motors to the drives which act as transmission lines and also prevents the use of standard position sensors. However, reliable and precise operation of the collimators is critical for the machine, requiring the prevention of step loss in the motors and maintenance to be foreseen in case of mechanical degradation. In order to make the above possible, an approach is proposed for the application of an Extended Kalman Filter to a sensorless stepper motor drive, when the motor is separated from its drive by long cables. When the long cables and high frequency pulse width modulated control voltage signals are used together, the electrical signals difer greatly between the motor and drive-side of the cable. Since in the considered case only drive-side data is available, it is therefore necessary to estimate the motor-side signals. Modelling the entire cable and motor system in an Extended Kalman Filter is too computationally intensive for standard embedded real-time platforms. It is, in consequence, proposed to divide the problem into an Extended Kalman Filter, based only on the motor model, and separated motor-side signal estimators, the combination of which is less demanding computationally. The efectiveness of this approach is shown in simulation. Then its validity is experimentally demonstrated via implementation in a DSP based drive. A testbench to test its performance when driving an axis of a Large Hadron Collider collimator is presented along with the results achieved. It is shown that the proposed method is capable of achieving position and load torque estimates which allow step loss to be detected and mechanical degradation to be evaluated without the need for physical sensors. These estimation algorithms often require a precise model of the motor, but the standard electrical model used for hybrid stepper motors is limited when currents, which are high enough to produce saturation of the magnetic circuit, are present. New model extensions are proposed in order to have a more precise model of the motor independently of the current level, whilst maintaining a low computational cost. It is shown that a significant improvement in the model It is achieved with these extensions, and their computational performance is compared to study the cost of model improvement versus computation cost. The applicability of the proposed model extensions is demonstrated via their use in an Extended Kalman Filter running in real-time for closed-loop current control and mechanical state estimation. An additional problem arises from the use of stepper motors. The mechanics of the collimators can wear due to the abrupt motion and torque profiles that are applied by them when used in the standard way, i.e. stepping in open-loop. Closed-loop position control, more specifically Field Oriented Control, would allow smoother profiles, more respectful to the mechanics, to be applied but requires position feedback. As mentioned already, the use of sensors in radioactive environments is very limited for reliability reasons. Sensorless control is a known option but when the speed is very low or zero, as is the case most of the time for the motors used in the LHC collimator, the loss of observability prevents its use. In order to allow the use of position sensors without reducing the long term reliability of the whole system, the possibility to switch from closed to open loop is proposed and validated, allowing the use of closed-loop control when the position sensors function correctly and open-loop when there is a sensor failure. A different approach to deal with the switched drive working with long cables is also presented. Switched mode stepper motor drives tend to have poor performance or even fail completely when the motor is fed through a long cable due to the high oscillations in the drive-side current. The design of a stepper motor output fillter which solves this problem is thus proposed. A two stage filter, one devoted to dealing with the diferential mode and the other with the common mode, is designed and validated experimentally. With this ?lter the drive performance is greatly improved, achieving a positioning repeatability even better than with the drive working without a long cable, the radiated emissions are reduced and the overvoltages at the motor terminals are eliminated.

Implementation of the Heated Pulsed Theory using actively heated fiber optics: measurements of soil volumetric water content and soil volumetric heat capacity

Existe una creciente necesidad de hacer el mejor uso del agua para regadío. Una alternativa eficiente consiste en la monitorización del contenido volumétrico de agua (θ), utilizando sensores de humedad. A pesar de existir una gran diversidad de sensores y tecnologías disponibles, actualmente ninguna de ellas permite obtener medidas distribuidas en perfiles verticales de un metro y en escalas laterales de 0.1-1,000 m. En este sentido, es necesario buscar tecnologías alternativas que sirvan de puente entre las medidas puntuales y las escalas intermedias. Esta tesis doctoral se basa en el uso de Fibra Óptica (FO) con sistema de medida de temperatura distribuida (DTS), una tecnología alternativa de reciente creación que ha levantado gran expectación en las últimas dos décadas. Específicamente utilizamos el método de fibra calentada, en inglés Actively Heated Fiber Optic (AHFO), en la cual los cables de Fibra Óptica se utilizan como sondas de calor mediante la aplicación de corriente eléctrica a través de la camisa de acero inoxidable, o de un conductor eléctrico simétricamente posicionado, envuelto, alrededor del haz de fibra óptica. El uso de fibra calentada se basa en la utilización de la teoría de los pulsos de calor, en inglés Heated Pulsed Theory (HPP), por la cual el conductor se aproxima a una fuente de calor lineal e infinitesimal que introduce calor en el suelo. Mediante el análisis del tiempo de ocurrencia y magnitud de la respuesta térmica ante un pulso de calor, es posible estimar algunas propiedades específicas del suelo, tales como el contenido de humedad, calor específico (C) y conductividad térmica. Estos parámetros pueden ser estimados utilizando un sensor de temperatura adyacente a la sonda de calor [método simple, en inglés single heated pulsed probes (SHPP)], ó a una distancia radial r [método doble, en inglés dual heated pulsed probes (DHPP)]. Esta tesis doctoral pretende probar la idoneidad de los sistemas de fibra óptica calentada para la aplicación de la teoría clásica de sondas calentadas. Para ello, se desarrollarán dos sistemas FO-DTS. El primero se sitúa en un campo agrícola de La Nava de Arévalo (Ávila, España), en el cual se aplica la teoría SHPP para estimar θ. El segundo sistema se desarrolla en laboratorio y emplea la teoría DHPP para medir tanto θ como C. La teoría SHPP puede ser implementada con fibra óptica calentada para obtener medidas distribuidas de θ, mediante la utilización de sistemas FO-DTS y el uso de curvas de calibración específicas para cada suelo. Sin embargo, la mayoría de aplicaciones AHFO se han desarrollado exclusivamente en laboratorio utilizando medios porosos homogéneos. En esta tesis se utiliza el programa Hydrus 2D/3D para definir tales curvas de calibración. El modelo propuesto es validado en un segmento de cable enterrado en una instalación de fibra óptica y es capaz de predecir la respuesta térmica del suelo en puntos concretos de la instalación una vez que las propiedades físicas y térmicas de éste son definidas. La exactitud de la metodología para predecir θ frente a medidas puntuales tomadas con sensores de humedad comerciales fue de 0.001 a 0.022 m3 m-3 La implementación de la teoría DHPP con AHFO para medir C y θ suponen una oportunidad sin precedentes para aplicaciones medioambientales. En esta tesis se emplean diferentes combinaciones de cables y fuentes emisoras de calor, que se colocan en paralelo y utilizan un rango variado de espaciamientos, todo ello en el laboratorio. La amplitud de la señal y el tiempo de llegada se han observado como funciones del calor específico del suelo. Medidas de C, utilizando esta metodología y ante un rango variado de contenidos de humedad, sugirieron la idoneidad del método, aunque también se observaron importantes errores en contenidos bajos de humedad de hasta un 22%. La mejora del método requerirá otros modelos más precisos que tengan en cuenta el diámetro del cable, así como la posible influencia térmica del mismo. ABSTRACT There is an increasing need to make the most efficient use of water for irrigation. A good approach to make irrigation as efficient as possible is to monitor soil water content (θ) using soil moisture sensors. Although, there is a broad range of different sensors and technologies, currently, none of them can practically and accurately provide vertical and lateral moisture profiles spanning 0-1 m depth and 0.1-1,000 m lateral scales. In this regard, further research to fulfill the intermediate scale and to bridge single-point measurement with the broaden scales is still needed. This dissertation is based on the use of Fiber Optics with Distributed Temperature Sensing (FO-DTS), a novel approach which has been receiving growing interest in the last two decades. Specifically, we employ the so called Actively Heated Fiber Optic (AHFO) method, in which FO cables are employed as heat probe conductors by applying electricity to the stainless steel armoring jacket or an added conductor symmetrically positioned (wrapped) about the FO cable. AHFO is based on the classic Heated Pulsed Theory (HPP) which usually employs a heat probe conductor that approximates to an infinite line heat source which injects heat into the soil. Observation of the timing and magnitude of the thermal response to the energy input provide enough information to derive certain specific soil thermal characteristics such as the soil heat capacity, soil thermal conductivity or soil water content. These parameters can be estimated by capturing the soil thermal response (using a thermal sensor) adjacent to the heat source (the heating and the thermal sources are mounted together in the so called single heated pulsed probe (SHPP)), or separated at a certain distance, r (dual heated pulsed method (DHPP) This dissertation aims to test the feasibility of heated fiber optics to implement the HPP theory. Specifically, we focus on measuring soil water content (θ) and soil heat capacity (C) by employing two types of FO-DTS systems. The first one is located in an agricultural field in La Nava de Arévalo (Ávila, Spain) and employ the SHPP theory to estimate θ. The second one is developed in the laboratory using the procedures described in the DHPP theory, and focuses on estimating both C and θ. The SHPP theory can be implemented with actively heated fiber optics (AHFO) to obtain distributed measurements of soil water content (θ) by using reported soil thermal responses in Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) and with a soil-specific calibration relationship. However, most reported AHFO applications have been calibrated under laboratory homogeneous soil conditions, while inexpensive efficient calibration procedures useful in heterogeneous soils are lacking. In this PhD thesis, we employ the Hydrus 2D/3D code to define these soil-specific calibration curves. The model is then validated at a selected FO transect of the DTS installation. The model was able to predict the soil thermal response at specific locations of the fiber optic cable once the surrounding soil hydraulic and thermal properties were known. Results using electromagnetic moisture sensors at the same specific locations demonstrate the feasibility of the model to detect θ within an accuracy of 0.001 to 0.022 m3 m-3. Implementation of the Dual Heated Pulsed Probe (DPHP) theory for measurement of volumetric heat capacity (C) and water content (θ) with Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) heated fiber optic (FO) systems presents an unprecedented opportunity for environmental monitoring. We test the method using different combinations of FO cables and heat sources at a range of spacings in a laboratory setting. The amplitude and phase-shift in the heat signal with distance was found to be a function of the soil volumetric heat capacity (referred, here, to as Cs). Estimations of Cs at a range of θ suggest feasibility via responsiveness to the changes in θ (we observed a linear relationship in all FO combinations), though observed bias with decreasing soil water contents (up to 22%) was also reported. Optimization will require further models to account for the finite radius and thermal influence of the FO cables, employed here as “needle probes”. Also, consideration of the range of soil conditions and cable spacing and jacket configurations, suggested here to be valuable subjects of further study and development.

Evaluation of preisach model of hysteresis to model superconductors

The Large Hadron Collider is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator. The project is divided in phases. The first one goes from 2009 until 2020. The second phase will consist of the implementation of upgrades. One of the upgrades is to increase the ratio of collision, the luminosity. This objective is the main of one of the most important projects which is carrying out the upgrades: Hi-Lumi LHC project. Increasing luminosity could be done by using a new material in the superconductor magnets placed at the interaction points: Nb3Sn, instead of NbTi, the one being used right now. Before implementing it many aspects should be analysed. One of them is the induction magnetic field quality. The tool used so far has been ROXIE, software developed at CERN by S. Russenschuck. One of the main features of the programme is the time-transient analysis, which is based on three mathematical models. It is quite precise for fields above 1.5 Tesla. However, they are not very accurate for lower fields. Therefore the aim of this project is to evaluate a more accurate model: Classical Preisach Model of Hysteresis, in order to better analyse induced field quality in the new material Nb3Sn. Resumen: El Gran Colisionador de Hadrones es el mayor acelerador de partículas circular del mundo. Se trata de uno de los mayores proyectos de investigación. La primera fase de funcionamiento comprende desde 2009 a 2020, cuando comenzará la siguiente fase. Durante el primer periodo se han pensado mejoras para que puedan ser implementadas en la segunda fase. Una de ellas es el aumento del ratio de las colisiones entre protones por choque. Este es el principal objetivo de uno de los proyectos que está llevando a cabo las mejoras a ser implementadas en 2020: Hi- Lumi LHC. Se cambiarán los imanes superconductores de NbTi de las dos zonas principales de interacción, y se sustituirán por imanes de Nb3Sn. Esta sustituciónn conlleva un profundo estudio previo. Entre otros, uno de los factores a analizar es la calidad del campo magnético. La herramienta utilizada es el software desarrollado por S. Russenschuck en el CERN llamado ROXIE. Está basado en tres modelos de magnetización, los cuales son precisos para campos mayores de 1.5 T. Sin embargo, no lo son tanto para campos menores. Con este proyecto se pretende evaluar la implementación de un cuarto modelo, el modelo clásico de histéresis de Preisach que permita llevar a cabo un mejor análisis de la calidad del campo inducido por el futuro material a utilizar en algunos de los imanes.

A CAD development strategy for the next years

This paper suggests a new strategy to develop CAD applications taking into account some of the most interesting proposals which have recently appeared in the technology development arena. Programming languages, operating systems, user devices, software architecture, user interfaces and user experience are among the elements which are considered for a new development framework. This strategy considers the organizational and architectural aspects of the CAD application together with the development framework. The architectural and organizational aspects are based on the programmed design concept, which can be implemented by means of a three-level software architecture. These levels are the conceptual level based on a declarative language, the mathematical level based on the geometric formulation of the product model and the visual level based on the polyhedral representation of the model as required by the graphic card. The development framework which has been considered is Windows 8. This operating system offers three development environments, one for web pplications (HTML5 + CSS3 + JavaScript), and other for native applications C/C++) and of course yet another for .NET applications (C#, VB, F#, etc.). The use rinterface and user experience for non-web application is described ith XAML (a well known declarative XML language) and the 3D API for games and design applications is DirectX. Additionally, Windows 8 facilitates the use of hybrid solutions, in which native and managed code can interoperate easily. Some of the most remarkable advantages of this strategy are the possibility of targeting both desktop and touch screen devices with the same development framework, the usage of several programming paradigms to apply the most appropriate language to each domain and the multilevel segmentation of developers and designers to facilitate the implementation of an open network of collaborators.

Mechanical behavior and failure micromechanisms of hybrid 3D woven composites in tension

The deformation and failure micromechanisms of a hybrid 3D woven composite were studied in tension. Plain and open-hole composite coupons were tested in tension until failure in the fill and warp directions, as well as fiber tows extracted from the dry fabric and impregnated with the matrix. The macroscopic evolution of damage in the composite coupons was assessed by means of periodic unloading–reloading (to obtain the elastic modulus and the residual strain), whereas the microscopic mechanism were established by means of X-ray computed microtomography. To this end, specimens were periodically removed from the mechanical testing machine and infiltrated with ZnI-containing liquid to assess the main damage modes as a function of the applied strain. The experimental observations and the predictions of an isostrain model were used to understand the key factors controlling the elastic modulus, strength and notch sensitivity of hybrid 3D woven composites in tension. It was found that the full contribution of the glass fibers to the composite strength was not employed, due to the premature fracture of the carbon fibers, but their presence increased the fracture strain and the energy dissipated during fracture. Thus, hybridization of the 3D woven composite led to a notch-insensitive behavior as demonstrated by open-hole tests

A data model for Cultural Heritage within INSPIRE.

Esta monografía presenta los fundamentos, contexto y detalles técnicos de un Esquema de Aplicación para la incorporación de datos espaciales relativos al patrimonio cultural en el marco definido por la directiva europea INSPIRE sobre información geográfica. Abstract: This monograph presents the background, context and technical details of an Application Schema for the inclusion of cultural heritage spatial data into the INSPIRE framework. Nowadays, INSPIRE provides the most relevant framework for the dissemination and exchange of geographical data, covering many different thematic fields, particularly relevant for envi-ronmental datasets. Although cultural heritage elements are partially addressed within INSPIRE, there is no specific documentation on how these data should be considered, structured and published. This text aims to provide technical guidelines for decision makers, public administrations and the scientific community for the definition and implementation of harmonized datasets for cultural heritage, according to the interoperability principles of INSPIRE.