The SIROCO Asteroid Deflection Demonstrator

There is evidence of past Near-Earth-Objects (NEOs) impacts on Earth and several studies indicating that even relatively small objects are capable of causing large local damage, either directly or in combination with other phenomena, e.g. tsunamis. This paper describes a space mission concept to demonstrate some of the key technologies to rendezvous with an asteroid and accurately measure its trajectory during and after a deflection maneuver. The mission, called SIROCO, makes use of the recently proposed ion beam shepherd (IBS) concept where a stream of accelerated plasma ions is directed against the surface of a small NEO resulting in a net transmitted deflection force. We show that by carefully selecting the target NEO a measurable deflection can be obtained in a few weeks of continuous thrust with a small spacecraft and state of the art electric propulsion hardware.

A new PET prototype for proton therapy: comparison of data and Monte Carlo simulations

Ion beam therapy is a valuable method for the treatment of deep-seated and radio-resistant tumors thanks to the favorable depth-dose distribution characterized by the Bragg peak. Hadrontherapy facilities take advantage of the specific ion range, resulting in a highly conformal dose in the target volume, while the dose in critical organs is reduced as compared to photon therapy. The necessity to monitor the delivery precision, i.e. the ion range, is unquestionable, thus different approaches have been investigated, such as the detection of prompt photons or annihilation photons of positron emitter nuclei created during the therapeutic treatment. Based on the measurement of the induced β+ activity, our group has developed various in-beam PET prototypes: the one under test is composed by two planar detector heads, each one consisting of four modules with a total active area of 10 × 10 cm2. A single detector module is made of a LYSO crystal matrix coupled to a position sensitive photomultiplier and is read-out by dedicated frontend electronics. A preliminary data taking was performed at the Italian National Centre for Oncological Hadron Therapy (CNAO, Pavia), using proton beams in the energy range of 93–112 MeV impinging on a plastic phantom. The measured activity profiles are presented and compared with the simulated ones based on the Monte Carlo FLUKA package.

Three-dimensional distribution of cortical synapses: a replicated point pattern-based analysis

The biggest problem when analyzing the brain is that its synaptic connections are extremely complex. Generally, the billions of neurons making up the brain exchange information through two types of highly specialized structures: chemical synapses (the vast majority) and so-called gap junctions (a substrate of one class of electrical synapse). Here we are interested in exploring the three-dimensional spatial distribution of chemical synapses in the cerebral cortex. Recent research has showed that the three-dimensional spatial distribution of synapses in layer III of the neocortex can be modeled by a random sequential adsorption (RSA) point process, i.e., synapses are distributed in space almost randomly, with the only constraint that they cannot overlap. In this study we hypothesize that RSA processes can also explain the distribution of synapses in all cortical layers. We also investigate whether there are differences in both the synaptic density and spatial distribution of synapses between layers. Using combined focused ion beam milling and scanning electron microscopy (FIB/SEM), we obtained three-dimensional samples from the six layers of the rat somatosensory cortex and identified and reconstructed the synaptic junctions. A total volume of tissue of approximately 4500μm3 and around 4000 synapses from three different animals were analyzed. Different samples, layers and/or animals were aggregated and compared using RSA replicated spatial point processes. The results showed no significant differences in the synaptic distribution across the different rats used in the study. We found that RSA processes described the spatial distribution of synapses in all samples of each layer. We also found that the synaptic distribution in layers II to VI conforms to a common underlying RSA process with different densities per layer. Interestingly, the results showed that synapses in layer I had a slightly different spatial distribution from the other layers.

Effect of layer thickness on the high temperature mechanical properties of Al/SiC nanolaminates

Composite laminates on the nanoscale have shown superior hardness and toughness, but little is known about their high temperature behavior. The mechanical properties (elastic modulus and hardness) were measured as a function of temperature by means of nanoindentation in Al/SiC nanolaminates, a model metal–ceramic nanolaminate fabricated by physical vapor deposition. The influence of the Al and SiC volume fraction and layer thicknesses was determined between room temperature and 150 °C and, the deformation modes were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy, using a focused ion beam to prepare cross-sections through selected indents. It was found that ambient temperature deformation was controlled by the plastic flow of the Al layers, constrained by the SiC, and the elastic bending of the SiC layers. The reduction in hardness with temperature showed evidence of the development of interface-mediated deformation mechanisms, which led to a clear influence of layer thickness on the hardness.

High Fidelity Models for Near-Earth Object Dynamics

Motivado por los últimos hallazgos realizados gracias a los recientes avances tecnológicos y misiones espaciales, el estudio de los asteroides ha despertado el interés de la comunidad científica. Tal es así que las misiones a asteroides han proliferado en los últimos años (Hayabusa, Dawn, OSIRIX-REx, ARM, AIMS-DART, ...) incentivadas por su enorme interés científico. Los asteroides son constituyentes fundamentales en la evolución del Sistema Solar, son además grandes concentraciones de valiosos recursos naturales, y también pueden considerarse como objectivos estratégicos para la futura exploración espacial. Desde hace tiempo se viene especulando con la posibilidad de capturar objetos próximos a la Tierra (NEOs en su acrónimo anglosajón) y acercarlos a nuestro planeta, permitiendo así un acceso asequible a los mismos para estudiarlos in-situ, explotar sus recursos u otras finalidades. Por otro lado, las asteroides se consideran con frecuencia como posibles peligros de magnitud planetaria, ya que impactos de estos objetos con la Tierra suceden constantemente, y un asteroide suficientemente grande podría desencadenar eventos catastróficos. Pese a la gravedad de tales acontecimientos, lo cierto es que son ciertamente difíciles de predecir. De hecho, los ricos aspectos dinámicos de los asteroides, su modelado complejo y las incertidumbres observaciones hacen que predecir su posición futura con la precisión necesaria sea todo un reto. Este hecho se hace más relevante cuando los asteroides sufren encuentros próximos con la Tierra, y más aún cuando estos son recurrentes. En tales situaciones en las cuales fuera necesario tomar medidas para mitigar este tipo de riesgos, saber estimar con precisión sus trayectorias y probabilidades de colisión es de una importancia vital. Por ello, se necesitan herramientas avanzadas para modelar su dinámica y predecir sus órbitas con precisión, y son también necesarios nuevos conceptos tecnológicos para manipular sus órbitas llegado el caso. El objetivo de esta Tesis es proporcionar nuevos métodos, técnicas y soluciones para abordar estos retos. Las contribuciones de esta Tesis se engloban en dos áreas: una dedicada a la propagación numérica de asteroides, y otra a conceptos de deflexión y captura de asteroides. Por lo tanto, la primera parte de este documento presenta novedosos avances de apliación a la propagación dinámica de alta precisión de NEOs empleando métodos de regularización y perturbaciones, con especial énfasis en el método DROMO, mientras que la segunda parte expone ideas innovadoras para la captura de asteroides y comenta el uso del “ion beam shepherd” (IBS) como tecnología para deflectarlos. Abstract Driven by the latest discoveries enabled by recent technological advances and space missions, the study of asteroids has awakened the interest of the scientific community. In fact, asteroid missions have become very popular in the recent years (Hayabusa, Dawn, OSIRIX-REx, ARM, AIMS-DART, ...) motivated by their outstanding scientific interest. Asteroids are fundamental constituents in the evolution of the Solar System, can be seen as vast concentrations of valuable natural resources, and are also considered as strategic targets for the future of space exploration. For long it has been hypothesized with the possibility of capturing small near-Earth asteroids and delivering them to the vicinity of the Earth in order to allow an affordable access to them for in-situ science, resource utilization and other purposes. On the other side of the balance, asteroids are often seen as potential planetary hazards, since impacts with the Earth happen all the time, and eventually an asteroid large enough could trigger catastrophic events. In spite of the severity of such occurrences, they are also utterly hard to predict. In fact, the rich dynamical aspects of asteroids, their complex modeling and observational uncertainties make exceptionally challenging to predict their future position accurately enough. This becomes particularly relevant when asteroids exhibit close encounters with the Earth, and more so when these happen recurrently. In such situations, where mitigation measures may need to be taken, it is of paramount importance to be able to accurately estimate their trajectories and collision probabilities. As a consequence, advanced tools are needed to model their dynamics and accurately predict their orbits, as well as new technological concepts to manipulate their orbits if necessary. The goal of this Thesis is to provide new methods, techniques and solutions to address these challenges. The contributions of this Thesis fall into two areas: one devoted to the numerical propagation of asteroids, and another to asteroid deflection and capture concepts. Hence, the first part of the dissertation presents novel advances applicable to the high accuracy dynamical propagation of near-Earth asteroids using regularization and perturbations techniques, with a special emphasis in the DROMO method, whereas the second part exposes pioneering ideas for asteroid retrieval missions and discusses the use of an “ion beam shepherd” (IBS) for asteroid deflection purposes.

Calculation Methodology and Fabrication Procedures for Particle Accelerator Strip-Line Kickers: Application to the CTF3 Combiner Ring Extraction Kicker and TL2 Tail Clippers

A particle accelerator is any device that, using electromagnetic fields, is able to communicate energy to charged particles (typically electrons or ionized atoms), accelerating and/or energizing them up to the required level for its purpose. The applications of particle accelerators are countless, beginning in a common TV CRT, passing through medical X-ray devices, and ending in large ion colliders utilized to find the smallest details of the matter. Among the other engineering applications, the ion implantation devices to obtain better semiconductors and materials of amazing properties are included. Materials supporting irradiation for future nuclear fusion plants are also benefited from particle accelerators. There are many devices in a particle accelerator required for its correct operation. The most important are the particle sources, the guiding, focalizing and correcting magnets, the radiofrequency accelerating cavities, the fast deflection devices, the beam diagnostic mechanisms and the particle detectors. Most of the fast particle deflection devices have been built historically by using copper coils and ferrite cores which could effectuate a relatively fast magnetic deflection, but needed large voltages and currents to counteract the high coil inductance in a response in the microseconds range. Various beam stability considerations and the new range of energies and sizes of present time accelerators and their rings require new devices featuring an improved wakefield behaviour and faster response (in the nanoseconds range). This can only be achieved by an electromagnetic deflection device based on a transmission line. The electromagnetic deflection device (strip-line kicker) produces a transverse displacement on the particle beam travelling close to the speed of light, in order to extract the particles to another experiment or to inject them into a different accelerator. The deflection is carried out by the means of two short, opposite phase pulses. The diversion of the particles is exerted by the integrated Lorentz force of the electromagnetic field travelling along the kicker. This Thesis deals with a detailed calculation, manufacturing and test methodology for strip-line kicker devices. The methodology is then applied to two real cases which are fully designed, built, tested and finally installed in the CTF3 accelerator facility at CERN (Geneva). Analytical and numerical calculations, both in 2D and 3D, are detailed starting from the basic specifications in order to obtain a conceptual design. Time domain and frequency domain calculations are developed in the process using different FDM and FEM codes. The following concepts among others are analyzed: scattering parameters, resonating high order modes, the wakefields, etc. Several contributions are presented in the calculation process dealing specifically with strip-line kicker devices fed by electromagnetic pulses. Materials and components typically used for the fabrication of these devices are analyzed in the manufacturing section. Mechanical supports and connexions of electrodes are also detailed, presenting some interesting contributions on these concepts. The electromagnetic and vacuum tests are then analyzed. These tests are required to ensure that the manufactured devices fulfil the specifications. Finally, and only from the analytical point of view, the strip-line kickers are studied together with a pulsed power supply based on solid state power switches (MOSFETs). The solid state technology applied to pulsed power supplies is introduced and several circuit topologies are modelled and simulated to obtain fast and good flat-top pulses.

Technical developments for computed tomography on the CENBG nanobeam line

The use of ion microbeams as probes for computedtomography has proven to be a powerful tool for the three-dimensional characterization of specimens a few tens of micrometers in size. Compared to other types of probes, the main advantage is that quantitative information about mass density and composition can be obtained directly, using specific reconstruction codes. At the Centre d’Etudes Nucléaires de Bordeaux Gradignan (CENBG), this technique was initially developed for applications in cellular biology. However, the observation of the cell ultrastructure requires a sub-micron resolution. The construction of the nanobeamline at the Applications Interdisciplinaires des Faisceaux d’Ions en Region Aquitaine (AIFIRA) irradiation facility has opened new perspectives for such applications. The implementation of computedtomography on the nanobeamline of CENBG has required a careful design of the analysis chamber, especially microscopes for precise sample visualization, and detectors for scanning transmission ion microscopy (STIM) and for particle induced X-ray emission (PIXE). The sample can be precisely positioned in the three directions X, Y, Z and a stepper motor coupled to a goniometer ensures the rotational motion. First images of 3D tomography were obtained on a reference sample containing microspheres of certified diameter, showing the good stability of the beam and the sample stage, and the precision of the motion.

Two design methods for radial line slot antennas with arbitrary or beam pattern

Two design procedures for Radial Line Slot Antennas (RLSAs) with circular polarization and either maximum gain or an arbitrary shaped pattern are proposed. Firstly, a method to design a RLSA with any desired pattern is presented. It is based on an optimization algorithm and some measures to ensure its fast convergence and stability need to be taken. Secondly, a fast technique to calculate the length and the position of every slot in a high gain RLSA with uniform field distribution is described. Both procedures are vali dated with the design of three antennas with different characteristics.

Diseño y evaluación de un procedimiento on-line para la biorremediación de aguas radiactivas en centrales nucleares

Recientemente se ha demostrado la existencia de microorganismos en las piscinas de almacenamiento de combustible nuclear gastado en las centrales nucleares utilizando técnicas convencionales de cultivo en el laboratorio. Estudios posteriores han puesto de manifiesto que los microorganismos presentes eran capaces de colonizar las paredes de acero inoxidable de las piscinas formando biopelículas. Adicionalmente se ha observado la capacidad de estas biopelículas de retener radionúclidos, lo que hace pensar en la posibilidad de utilizarlas en la descontaminación de las aguas radiactivas de las piscinas. En la presente tesis se plantea conocer más profundamente la biodiversidad microbiana de las biopelículas utilizando técnicas de biología molecular como la clonación, además de desarrollar un sistema de descontaminación a escala piloto con el objetivo de valorar si el proceso podría resultar escalable a nivel industrial. Para ello se diseñaron y fabricaron dos biorreactores en acero inoxidable compatibles con las condiciones específicas de seguridad sísmica y protección frente a la radiación en la zona controlada de una central nuclear. Los biorreactores se instalaron en la Central Nuclear de Cofrentes (Valencia) en las proximidades de las piscinas de almacenamiento de combustible nuclear gastado y precediendo a las resinas de intercambio iónico, de forma que reciben el agua de las piscinas permitiendo el análisis in situ de la radiación eliminada del agua de las mismas. Se conectó una lámpara de luz ultravioleta a uno de los biorreactores para poder comparar el desarrollo de bipelículas y la retención de radiactividad en ambas condiciones. En estos biorreactores se introdujeron ovillos de acero inoxidable y de titanio que se extrajeron a diversos tiempos, hasta 635 días para los ovillos de acero inoxidable y hasta 309 días para los ovillos de titanio. Se analizaron las biopelículas desarrolladas sobre los ovillos por microscopía electrónica de barrido y por microscopía de epifluorescencia. Se extrajo el ADN de las biopelículas y, tras su clonación, se identificaron los microorganismos por técnicas independientes de cultivo. Asimismo se determinó por espectrometría gamma la capacidad de las biopelículas para retener radionúclidos. Los microorganismos radiorresistentes identificados pertenecen a los grupos filogenéticos Alpha-proteobacteria, Gamma-proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Deinococcus-Thermus y Bacteroidetes. Las secuencias de estos microorganismos se han depositado en el GenBank con los números de acceso KR817260-KR817405. Se ha observado una distribución porcentual ligeramente diferente en relación con el tipo de biorreactor. Las biopelículas han retenido fundamentalmente radionúclidos de activación. La suma de Co-60 y Mn-54 ha llegado en ocasiones al 97%. Otros radionúclidos retenidos han sido Cr-51, Co-58, Fe-59, Zn-65 y Zr-95. Se sugiere un mecanismo del proceso de retención de radionúclidos relacionado con el tiempo de formación y desaparición de las biopelículas. Se ha valorado que el proceso escalable puede ser económicamente rentable. ABSTRACT The existence of microorganisms in spent nuclear fuel pools has been demonstrated recently in nuclear power plants by using conventional microbial techniques. Subsequent studies have revealed that those microorganisms were able to colonize the stainless steel pool walls forming biofilms. Additionally, it has been observed the ability of these biofilms to retain radionuclides, which suggests the possibility of using them for radioactive water decontamination purposes. This thesis presents deeper knowledge of microbial biofilms biodiversity by using molecular biology techniques such as cloning, and develops a decontamination system on a pilot scale, in order to assess whether the process could be scalable to an industrial level. Aiming to demonstrate this was feasible, two stainless steel bioreactors were designed and manufactured, both were compatible with seismic and radiation protection standards in the controlled zone of a nuclear plant. These bioreactors were installed in the Cofrentes Nuclear Power Plant (Valencia) next to the spent nuclear fuel pools and preceding (upstream) ion exchange resins. This configuration allowed the bioreactors to receive water directly from the pools allowing in situ analysis of radiation removal. One ultraviolet lamp was connected to one of the bioreactors to compare biofilms development and radioactivity retention in both conditions. Stainless steel and titanium balls were introduced into these bioreactors and were removed after different time periods, up to 635 days for stainless steel balls and up to 309 days for titanium. Biofilms developed on the balls were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and epifluorescence microscopy. DNA was extracted from the biofilms, was cloned and then the microorganisms were identified by independent culture techniques. Biofilms ability to retain radionuclides was also determined by gamma spectrometry. The identified radioresistant organisms belong to the phylogenetic groups Alphaproteobacteria, Gamma-proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Deinococcus-Thermus and Bacteroidetes. The sequences of these microorganisms have been deposited in GenBank (access numbers KR817260-KR817405). A different distribution of microorganisms was observed in relation to the type of bioreactor. Biofilms have essentially retained activation radionuclides. Sometimes the sum of Co-60 and Mn-54 reached 97%. Cr-51, Co-58, Fe-59, Zn-65 and Zr-95 have also been retained. A radionuclide retention process mechanism related to biofilms formation and disappearance time is suggested. It has been assessed that the scalable process can be economically profitable.

Emission control of InGaN nanocolumns grown by molecular-beam epitaxy on Si(111) substrates

This work studies the effect of the growth temperature on the morphology and emission characteristics of self-assembled InGaN nanocolumns grown by plasma assisted molecular beam epitaxy. Morphology changes are assessed by scanning electron microscopy, while emission is measured by photoluminescence. Within the growth temperature range of 750 to 650 °C, an increase in In incorporation for decreasing temperature is observed. This effect allows tailoring the InGaN nanocolumns emission line shape by using temperature gradients during growth. Depending on the gradient rate, span, and sign, broad emission line shapes are obtained, covering the yellow to green range, even yielding white emission

Stopping power dependence of nitrogen sputtering yields in copper nitride films under swift-ion irradiation: Exciton model approach

Nitrogen sputtering yields as high as 104 atoms/ion, are obtained by irradiating N-rich-Cu3N films (N concentration: 33 ± 2 at.%) with Cu ions at energies in the range 10?42 MeV. The kinetics of N sputtering as a function of ion fluence is determined at several energies (stopping powers) for films deposited on both, glass and silicon substrates. The kinetic curves show that the amount of nitrogen release strongly increases with rising irradiation fluence up to reaching a saturation level at a low remaining nitrogen fraction (5?10%), in which no further nitrogen reduction is observed. The sputtering rate for nitrogen depletion is found to be independent of the substrate and to linearly increase with electronic stopping power (Se). A stopping power (Sth) threshold of ?3.5 keV/nm for nitrogen depletion has been estimated from extrapolation of the data. Experimental kinetic data have been analyzed within a bulk molecular recombination model. The microscopic mechanisms of the nitrogen depletion process are discussed in terms of a non-radiative exciton decay model. In particular, the estimated threshold is related to a minimum exciton density which is required to achieve efficient sputtering rates.

Electronic damage in quartz (c-SiO2) by MeV ion irradiations: Potentiality for optical waveguiding applications

The damage induced on quartz (c-SiO2) by heavy ions (F, O, Br) at MeV energies, where electronic stopping is dominant, has been investigated by RBS/C and optical methods. The two techniques indicate the formation of amorphous layers with an isotropic refractive index (n = 1.475) at fluences around 1014 cm−2 that are associated to electronic mechanisms. The kinetics of the process can be described as the superposition of linear (possibly initial Poisson curve) and sigmoidal (Avrami-type) contributions. The coexistence of the two kinetic regimes may be associated to the differential roles of the amorphous track cores and preamorphous halos. By using ions and energies whose maximum stopping power lies inside the crystal (O at 13 MeV, F at 15 MeV and F at 30 MeV) buried amorphous layer are formed and optical waveguides at the sample surface have been generated.

Li distribution characterization in Li-ion batteries positive electrodes containing LixNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 secondary particles

The elemental distribution of as-received (non-charged) and charged Li-ion battery positive electrodes containing LixNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 (0.75 ? x ? 1.0) microparticles as active material is characterized by combining μ-PIXE and μ-PIGE techniques. PIGE measurements evidence that the Li distribution is inhomogeneous (existence of Li-rich and Li-depleted regions) in as-received electrodes corresponding with the distribution of secondary particles but it is homogeneous within the studied individual secondary micro-particles. The dependence of the Li distribution on electrode thickness and on charging conditions is characterized by measuring the Li distribution maps in specifically fabricated cross-sectional samples. These data show that decreasing the electrode thickness down to 35 μm and charging the batteries at slow rate give rise to more homogeneous Li depth profiles.

Effect of ion flux on helium retention in helium-irradiated tungsten

Helium retention in irradiated tungsten leads to swelling, pore formation, sample exfoliation and embrittlement with deleterious consequences in many applications. In particular, the use of tungsten in future nuclear fusion plants is proposed due to its good refractory properties. However, serious concerns about tungsten survivability stems from the fact that it must withstand severe irradiation conditions. In magnetic fusion as well as in inertial fusion (particularly with direct drive targets), tungsten components will be exposed to low and high energy ion irradiation (helium), respectively. A common feature is that the most detrimental situations will take place in pulsed mode, i.e., high flux irradiation. There is increasing evidence of a correlation between a high helium flux and an enhancement of detrimental effects on tungsten. Nevertheless, the nature of these effects is not well understood due to the subtleties imposed by the exact temperature profile evolution, ion energy, pulse duration, existence of impurities and simultaneous irradiation with other species. Object Kinetic Monte Carlo is the technique of choice to simulate the evolution of radiation-induced damage inside solids in large temporal and space scales. We have used the recently developed code MMonCa (Modular Monte Carlo simulator), presented at COSIRES 2012 for the first time, to study He retention (and in general defect evolution) in tungsten samples irradiated with high intensity helium pulses. The code simulates the interactions among a large variety of defects and during the irradiation stage and the subsequent annealing steps. The results show that the pulsed mode leads to significantly higher He retention at temperatures higher than 700 K. In this paper we discuss the process of He retention in terms of trap evolution. In addition, we discuss the implications of these findings for inertial fusion.

Contribution to active multi-beam reconfigurable antennas for L and S bands

La presente tesis doctoral con título "Contribution to Active Multi-Beam Reconfigurable Antennas for L and S Bands" ha sido desarrollada por el investigador ingeniero de telecomunicación estudiante de doctorado Javier García-Gasco Trujillo en el Grupo de Radiación del Departamento de Señales, Sistemas y Radiocomunicaciones de la ETSI de Telecomunicación de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid bajo la dirección de los doctores Manuel Sierra Pérez y José Manuel Fernández González. Durante décadas, el desarrollo de antenas de apuntamiento electrónico ha estado limitado al área militar. Su alto coste y su gran complejidad eran los mayores obstáculos que frenaban la introducción de esta tecnología en aplicaciones comerciales de gran escala. La reciente aparición de componentes de estado sólido prácticos, fiables, y de bajo coste ha roto la barrera del coste y ha reducido la complejidad, haciendo que las antenas reconfigurables de apuntamiento electrónico sean una opción viable en un futuro cercano. De esta manera, las antenas phased array podrían llegar a ser la joya de la corona que permitan alcanzar los futuros retos presentes en los sistemas de comunicaciones tanto civiles como militares. Así pues, ahora es el momento de investigar en el desarrollo de antenas de apuntamiento electrónico de bajo coste, donde los nuevos componentes de estado sólido comerciales forman el núcleo duro de la arquitectura. De esta forma, el estudio e implementación de estos arrays de antenas activas de apuntamiento electrónico capaces de controlar la fase y amplitud de las distintas señales implicadas es uno de los grandes retos de nuestro tiempo. Esta tesis se enfrenta a este desafío, proponiendo novedosas redes de apuntamiento electrónico e innovadores módulos de transmisión/recepción (T/R) utilizando componentes de estado sólido de bajo coste, que podrán integrar asequibles antenas activas reconfigurables multihaz en bandas L y S. En la primera parte de la tesis se realiza una descripción del estado del arte de las antenas phased array, incluyendo su base teórica y sus ventajas competitivas. Debido a que las contribuciones obtenidas en la presente tesis han sido realizadas dentro de distintos proyectos de investigación, donde se han manejada antenas de simple/doble polarización circular y simple/doble banda de trabajo, se describen detenidamente los dos proyectos más relevantes de la investigación: el radar de basura espacial de la Agencia Espacial Europea (ESA), Space Situational Awareness (SSA); y la estación base de seguimiento y control de satélites de órbita baja, GEOdesic Dome Array (GEODA). Sin lugar a dudas, los dispositivos desfasadores son uno de los componentes clave en el diseño de antenas phased arrays. Recientemente se ha observado una gran variación en el precio final de estos dispositivos, llegando en ocasiones a límites inasequibles. Así pues, se han propuesto distintas técnicas de conformación de haz alternativas a la utilización de componentes desfasadores comerciales: el desfasador de líneas conmutadas, la red de haz conmutado, y una novedosa red desfasadora divisora/combinadora de potencia. Para mostrar un uso práctico de las mismas, se ha propuesto el uso de las tres alternativas para el caso práctico del subarray de cinco elementos de la celda GEODA-SARAS. Tras dicho estudio se obtiene que la novedosa red desfasadora divisora/combinadora de potencia propuesta es la que mejor relación comportamiento/coste presenta. Para verificar su correcto funcionamiento se construye y mide los dos bloques principales de los que está compuesta la red total, comprobando que en efecto la red responde según lo esperado. La estructura más simple que permite realizar un barrido plano es el array triangular de tres elementos. Se ha realizado el diseño de una nueva red multihaz que es capaz de proporcionar tres haces ortogonales en un ángulo de elevación _0 y un haz adicional en la dirección broadside utilizando el mencionado array triangular de tres elementos como antena. En primer lugar se realizar una breve introducción al estado del arte de las redes clásicas multihaz. Así mismo se comentan innovadores diseños de redes multihaz sin pérdidas. El estudio da paso a las redes disipativas, de tal forma que se analiza su base matemática y se muestran distintas aplicaciones en arrays triangulares de tres elementos. Finalmente, la novedosa red básica propuesta se presenta, mostrando simulaciones y medidas de la misma para el caso prácticoo de GEODA. También se ha diseñado, construido y medido una red compuesta por dos redes básicas complementarias capaz de proporcionar seis haces cuasi-ortogonales en una dirección _0 con dos haces superpuestos en broadside. La red propuesta queda totalmente validada con la fabricación y medida de estos con prototipos. Las cadenas de RF de los módulos T/R de la nueva antena GEODA-SARAS no son algo trivial. Con el fin de mostrar el desarrollo de una cadena compleja con una gran densidad de componentes de estado sólido, se presenta una descripción detallada de los distintos componentes que integran las cadenas de RF tanto en transmisión como en recepción de la nueva antena GEODA-SARAS. Tras presentar las especificaciones de la antena GEODA-SARA y su diagrama de bloques esquemático se describen los dos bloques principales de las cadenas de RF: la celda de cinco elementos, y el módulo de conversión de panel. De la misma manera también se presentará el módulo de calibración integrado dentro de los dos bloques principales. Para comprobar que el funcionamiento esperado de la placa es el adecuado, se realizará un análisis que tratará entre otros datos: la potencia máxima en la entrada del transmisor (comprobando la saturación de la cadena), señal de recepción mínima y máxima (verificando el rango de sensibilidad requerido), y el factor G/T (cumpliendo la especificación necesaria). Así mismo se mostrará un breve estudio del efecto de la cuantificación de la fase en el conformado de haz de RF. Los estudios muestran que la composición de las cadenas de RF permite el cumplimiento de las especificaciones necesarias. Finalmente la tesis muestra las conclusiones globales del trabajo realizado y las líneas futuras a seguir para continuar con esta línea de investigación. ABSTRACT This PhD thesis named "Contribution to Active Multi-Beam Reconfigurable Antennas for L and S Bands", has been written by the Electrical Engineer MSc. researcher Javier García-Gasco Trujillo in the Grupo de Radiación of the Departamento de Señales, Sistemas y Radiocomunicaciones from the ETSI de Telecomunicación of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid. For decades, the implementation of electronically steerable phased array antennas was confined to the military area. Their high cost and complexity were the major obstacles to introduce this technology in large scale commercial applications. The recent emergence of new practical, low-cost, and highly reliable solid state devices; breaks the barrier of cost and reduces the complexity, making active phased arrays a viable future option. Thus, phased array antennas could be the crown jewel that allow to meet the future challenges in military and civilian communication systems. Now is time to deploy low-cost phased array antennas, where newly commercial components form the core of the architecture. Therefore, the study and implementation of these novel low-cost and highly efficient solid state phased array blocks capable of controlling signal phase/amplitude accurately is one of the great challenges of our time. This thesis faces this challenge, proposing innovative electronic beam steering networks and transmitter/ receiver (T/R) modules using affordable solid state components, which could integrate fair reconfigurable phased array antennas working in L and S bands. In the first part of the thesis, a description of the state of art of phased array antennas, including their fundamentals and their competitive advantages, is presented. Since thesis contributions have been carried out for different research projects, where antennas with single/double circular polarization and single/double working frequency bands have been examined, frameworks of the two more important projects are detailed: the Space Situational Awareness (SSA) programme from the European Space Agency (ESA), and the GEOdesic Dome Array (GEODA) project from ISDEFE-INSA and the ESA. Undoubtedly, phase shifter devices are one of the key components of phased array antennas. Recent years have witnessed wide fluctuations in commercial phase shifter prices, which sometimes led to unaffordable limit. Several RF steering technique alternatives to the commercial phase shifters are proposed, summarized, and compared: the switched line phase shifter, the switched-beam network, and the novel phase shifter power splitter/combiner network. In order to show a practical use of the three different techniques, the five element GEODA-SARAS subarray is proposed as a real case of study. Finally, a practical study of a newly phase shifter power splitter/combiner network for a subarray of five radiating elements with triangular distribution is shown. Measurements of the two different phase shifter power splitter/combiner prototypes integrating the whole network are also depicted, demonstrating their proper performance. A triangular cell of three radiating elements is the simplest way to obtain a planar scanner. A new multibeam network configuration that provides three orthogonal beams in a desired _0 elevation angle and an extra one in the broadside steering direction for a triangular array of three radiating elements is introduced. Firstly, a short introduction to the state of art of classical multi-beam networks is presented. Lossless network analysis, including original lossless network designs, are also commented. General dissipative network theory as well as applications for array antennas of three radiating elements are depicted. The proposed final basic multi-beam network are simulated, built and measured to the GEODA cell practical case. A combined network that provides six orthogonal beams in a desired _0 elevation angle and a double seventh one in the broadside direction by using two complementary proposed basic networks will be shown. Measurements of the whole system will be also depicted, verifying the expected behavior. GEODA-SARAS T/R module RF chains are not a trivial design. A thorough description of all the components compounding GEODA-SARAS T/R module RF chains is presented. After presenting the general specifications of the GEODA-SARAS antenna and its block diagrams; two main blocks of the RF chains, the five element cell and the panel conversion module, are depicted and analyzed. Calibration module integrated within the two main blocks are also depicted. Signal flow throw the system analyzing critical situations such as maximum transmitted power (testing the chain unsaturation), minimum and maximum receiving signal (verifying sensitivity range), maximum receiver interference signals (assuring a proper reception), and G/T factor (fulfilling the technical specification) are evaluated. Phase quantization error effects are also listed. Finally, the manuscript contains the conclusions drawn of the present research and the future work.