Steady state analysis of a storage integrated solar thermophotovoltaic (SISTPV) system

This paper presents the theoretical analysis of a storage integrated solar thermophotovoltaic (SISTPV) system operating in steady state. These systems combine thermophotovoltaic (TPV) technology and high temperature thermal storage phase-change materials (PCM) in the same unit, providing a great potential in terms of efficiency, cost reduction and storage energy density. The main attraction in the proposed system is its simplicity and modularity compared to conventional Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) technologies. This is mainly due to the absence of moving parts. In this paper we analyze the use of Silicon as the phase change material (PCM). Silicon is an excellent candidate because of its high melting point (1680 K) and its very high latent heat of fusion of 1800 kJ/kg, which is about ten times greater than the conventional PCMs like molten salts. For a simple system configuration, we have demonstrated that overall conversion efficiencies up to ?35% are approachable. Although higher efficiencies are expected by incorporating more advanced devices like multijunction TPV cells, narrow band selective emitters or adopting near-field TPV configurations as well as by enhancing the convective/conductive heat transfer within the PCM. In this paper, we also discuss about the optimum system configurations and provide the general guidelines for designing these systems. Preliminary estimates of night time operations indicate it is possible to achieve over 10 h of operation with a relatively small quantity of Silicon.

Evaluation of the reliability of high concentrator GaAs solar cells by means of temperature accelerated aging tests

ABSTRACT Evaluating the reliability, warranty period, and power degradation of high concentration solar cells is crucial to introducing this new technology to the market. The reliability of high concentration GaAs solar cells, as measured in temperature accelerated life tests, is described in this paper. GaAs cells were tested under high thermal accelerated conditions that emulated operation under 700 or 1050 suns over a period exceeding 10 000 h. Progressive power degradation was observed, although no catastrophic failures occurred. An Arrhenius activation energy of 1.02 eV was determined from these tests. The solar cell reliability [R(t)] under working conditions of 65°C was evaluated for different failure limits (1–10% power loss). From this reliability function, the mean time to failure and the warranty time were evaluated. Solar cell temperature appeared to be the primary determinant of reliability and warranty period, with concentration being the secondary determinant. A 30-year warranty for these 1 mm2-sized GaAs cells (manufactured according to a light emitting diode-like approach) may be offered for both cell concentrations (700 and 1050 suns) if the solar cell is operated at a working temperature of 65°C.

LED bulbs technical specification and testing procedure for solar home systems

The definition of technical specifications and the corresponding laboratory procedures are necessary steps in order to assure the quality of the devices prior to be installed in Solar Home Systems (SHS). To clarify and unify criteria a European project supported the development of the Universal Technical Standard for Solar Home Systems (UTSfSHS). Its principles were to generate simple and affordable technical requirements to be optimized in order to facilitate the implementation of tests with basic and simple laboratory tools even on the same SHS electrification program countries. These requirements cover the main aspects of this type of installations and its lighting chapter was developed based on the most used technology at that time: fluorescent tubes and CFLs. However, with the consolidation of the new LED solid state lighting devices, particular attention is being given to this matter and new procedures are required. In this work we develop a complete set of technical specifications and test procedures that have been designed within the frame of the UTSfSHS, based on an intense review of the scientific and technical publications related to LED lighting and their practical application. They apply to lamp reliability, performance and safety under normal, extreme and abnormal operating conditions as a simple but complete quality meter tool for any LED bulb.

Present and future of photovoltaic solar electricity

Introduction Crystalline silicon technology, from quartz to system Economical and environmental issues Alternatives to cristalline silicon technology Conclusions

Energía solar de concentración: estudio y análisis económico, comparativa con la energía solar fotovoltaica y mejoras tecnológicas

Este trabajo de fin de grado trata sobre el estudio de la energía solar de concentración en todos sus aspectos. Se han analizado sus tecnologías, así como posibles innovaciones que se puedan producir en los próximos años. También se va ha llevado a cabo un estudio de los costes actuales que conlleva el uso de este tipo de generación de energía, así como un análisis de las reducciones que pueden experimentar estos costes. Para poder realizar una comparación posterior con la energía solar fotovoltaica se ha escrito un capítulo dedicado exclusivamente a esta tecnología para conocer cuál es el estado actual. Además se ha realizado un análisis DAFO de los mercados que a priori puedan parecer más beneficiosos y que cuenten con un mayor potencial para el desarrollo de esta tecnología. A modo de conclusión para exponer la comparativa entre esta tecnología y la energía solar fotovoltaica se ha desarrollado un análisis de la viabilidad económica de dos plantas de estas tecnologías para comprobar en qué escenarios resulta más provechosa cada una de ellas. Al final se incluyen unas conclusiones extraídas del desarrollo del trabajo. Abstract This project concerns a study about every aspect about the concentrated solar power. Each type of technology has been analyzed as well as the possible innovations that may occur in the future. Also, the theme regarding the costs of this kind of power generation and an analysis dealing with the potential cost reduction that it may experience has been carried out. Then, in anticipation to do a comparative with the photovoltaic solar power, a whole chapter has been dedicated to this technology, to know what its actual state is. In addition, a SWOT analysis has also been carried out about the countries that at first sight might be a good option to develop the CSP. To conclude and to expose the comparative between these two technologies, a study about the economic viability of two power plants to know under what circumstances are each of them more profitable has been made. At the end some conclusions extracted from the development of this work have been included.

Towards cost reduction in concentrating solar power: innovative design for an efficient fresnel based solar field

Energía termosolar (de concentración) es uno de los nombres que hacen referencia en español al término inglés “concentrating solar power”. Se trata de una tecnología basada en la captura de la potencia térmica de la radiación solar, de forma que permita alcanzar temperaturas capaces de alimentar un ciclo termodinámico convencional (o avanzado); el futuro de esta tecnología depende principalmente de su capacidad para concentrar la radiación solar de manera eficiente y económica. La presente tesis está orientada hacia la resolución de ciertos problemas importantes relacionados con este objetivo. La mencionada necesidad de reducir costes en la concentración de radiación solar directa, asegurando el objetivo termodinámico de calentar un fluido hasta una determinada temperatura, es de vital importancia. Los colectores lineales Fresnel han sido identificados en la literatura científica como una tecnología con gran potencial para alcanzar esta reducción de costes. Dicha tecnología ha sido seleccionada por numerosas razones, entre las que destacan su gran libertad de diseño y su actual estado inmaduro. Con el objetivo de responder a este desafío se desarrollado un detallado estudio de las propiedades ópticas de los colectores lineales Fresnel, para lo cual se han utilizado métodos analíticos y numéricos de manera combinada. En primer lugar, se han usado unos modelos para la predicción de la localización y la irradiación normal directa del sol junto a unas relaciones analíticas desarrolladas para estudiar el efecto de múltiples variables de diseño en la energía incidente sobre los espejos. Del mismo modo, se han obtenido analíticamente los errores debidos al llamado “off-axis aberration”, a la apertura de los rayos reflejados en los espejos y a las sombras y bloqueos entre espejos. Esto ha permitido la comparación de diferentes formas de espejo –planos, circulares o parabólicos–, así como el diseño preliminar de la localización y anchura de los espejos y receptor sin necesidad de costosos métodos numéricos. En segundo lugar, se ha desarrollado un modelo de trazado de rayos de Monte Carlo con el objetivo de comprobar la validez del estudio analítico, pero sobre todo porque este no es preciso en el estudio de la reflexión en espejos. El código desarrollado está específicamente ideado para colectores lineales Fresnel, lo que ha permitido la reducción del tiempo de cálculo en varios órdenes de magnitud en comparación con un programa comercial más general. Esto justifica el desarrollo de un nuevo código en lugar de la compra de una licencia de otro programa. El modelo ha sido usado primeramente para comparar la intensidad de flujo térmico y rendimiento de colectores Fresnel, con y sin reflector secundario, con los colectores cilíndrico parabólicos. Finalmente, la conjunción de los resultados obtenidos en el estudio analítico con el programa numérico ha sido usada para optimizar el campo solar para diferentes orientaciones –Norte-Sur y Este-Oeste–, diferentes localizaciones –Almería y Aswan–, diferentes inclinaciones hacia el Trópico –desde 0 deg hasta 32 deg– y diferentes mínimos de intensidad del flujo en el centro del receptor –10 kW/m2 y 25 kW/m2–. La presente tesis ha conducido a importantes descubrimientos que deben ser considerados a la hora de diseñar un campo solar Fresnel. En primer lugar, los espejos utilizados no deben ser plano, sino cilíndricos o parabólicos, ya que los espejos curvos implican mayores concentraciones y rendimiento. Por otro lado, se ha llegado a la conclusión de que la orientación Este-Oeste es más propicia para localizaciones con altas latitudes, como Almería, mientras que en zonas más cercanas a los trópicos como Aswan los campos Norte-Sur conducen a mayores rendimientos. Es de destacar que la orientación Este-Oeste requiere aproximadamente la mitad de espejos que los campos Norte-Sur, puediendo estar inclinados hacia los Trópicos para mejorar el rendimiento, y que alcanzan parecidos valores de intensidad térmica en el receptor todos los días a mediodía. Sin embargo, los campos con orientación Norte-Sur permiten un flujo más constante a lo largo de un día. Por último, ha sido demostrado que el uso de diseños pre-optimizados analíticamente, con anchura de espejos y espaciado entre espejos variables a lo ancho del campo, pueden implicar aumentos de la energía generada por metro cuadrado de espejos de hasta el 6%. El rendimiento óptico anual de los colectores cilíndrico parabólicos es 23 % mayor que el rendimiento de los campos Fresnel en Almería, mientras que la diferencia es de solo 9 % en Aswan. Ello implica que, para alcanzar el mismo precio de electricidad que la tecnología de referencia, la reducción de costes de instalación por metro cuadrado de espejo debe estar entre el 10 % y el 25 %, y que los colectores lineales Fresnel tienen más posibilidades de ser desarrollados en zonas de bajas latitudes. Como consecuencia de los estudios desarrollados en esta tesis se ha patentado un sistema de almacenamiento que tiene en cuenta la variación del flujo térmico en el receptor a lo largo del día, especialmente para campos con orientación Este-Oeste. Este invento permitiría el aprovechamiento de la energía incidente durante más parte del año, aumentando de manera apreciable los rendimientos óptico y térmico. Abstract Concentrating solar power is the common name of a technology based on capturing the thermal power of solar radiation, in a suitable way to reach temperatures able to activate a conventional (or advanced) thermodynamic cycle to generate electricity; this quest mainly depends on our ability to concentrate solar radiation in a cheap and efficient way. The present thesis is focused to highlight and help solving some of the important issues related to this problem. The need of reducing costs in concentrating the direct solar radiation, but without jeopardizing the thermodynamic objective of heating a fluid up to the required temperature, is of prime importance. Linear Fresnel collectors have been identified in the scientific literature as a technology with high potential to reach this cost reduction. This technology has been selected because of a number of reasons, particularly the degrees of freedom of this type of concentrating configuration and its current immature state. In order to respond to this challenge, a very detailed exercise has been carried out on the optical properties of linear Fresnel collectors. This has been done combining analytic and numerical methods. First, the effect of the design variables on the ratio of energy impinging onto the reflecting surface has been studied using analytically developed equations, together with models that predict the location and direct normal irradiance of the sun at any moment. Similarly, errors due to off-axis aberration, to the aperture of the reflected energy beam and to shading and blocking effects have been obtained analytically. This has allowed the comparison of different shapes of mirrors –flat, cylindrical or parabolic–, as well as a preliminary optimization of the location and width of mirrors and receiver with no need of time-consuming numerical models. Second, in order to prove the validity of the analytic results, but also due to the fact that the study of the reflection process is not precise enough when using analytic equations, a Monte Carlo Ray Trace model has been developed. The developed code is designed specifically for linear Fresnel collectors, which has reduced the computing time by several orders of magnitude compared to a wider commercial software. This justifies the development of the new code. The model has been first used to compare radiation flux intensities and efficiencies of linear Fresnel collectors, both multitube receiver and secondary reflector receiver technologies, with parabolic trough collectors. Finally, the results obtained in the analytic study together with the numeric model have used in order to optimize the solar field for different orientations –North-South and East-West–, different locations –Almería and Aswan–, different tilts of the field towards the Tropic –from 0 deg to 32 deg– and different flux intensity minimum requirements –10 kW/m2 and 25 kW/m2. This thesis work has led to several important findings that should be considered in the design of Fresnel solar fields. First, flat mirrors should not be used in any case, as cylindrical and parabolic mirrors lead to higher flux intensities and efficiencies. Second, it has been concluded that, in locations relatively far from the Tropics such as Almería, East-West embodiments are more efficient, while in Aswan North- South orientation leads to a higher annual efficiency. It must be noted that East-West oriented solar fields require approximately half the number of mirrors than NS oriented fields, can be tilted towards the Equator in order to increase the efficiency and attain similar values of flux intensity at the receiver every day at midday. On the other hand, in NS embodiments the flux intensity is more even during each single day. Finally, it has been proved that the use of analytic designs with variable shift between mirrors and variable width of mirrors across the field can lead to improvements in the electricity generated per reflecting surface square meter up to 6%. The annual optical efficiency of parabolic troughs has been found to be 23% higher than the efficiency of Fresnel fields in Almería, but it is only around 9% higher in Aswan. This implies that, in order to attain the same levelized cost of electricity than parabolic troughs, the required reduction of installation costs per mirror square meter is in the range of 10-25%. Also, it is concluded that linear Fresnel collectors are more suitable for low latitude areas. As a consequence of the studies carried out in this thesis, an innovative storage system has been patented. This system takes into account the variation of the flux intensity along the day, especially for East-West oriented solar fields. As a result, the invention would allow to exploit the impinging radiation along longer time every day, increasing appreciably the optical and thermal efficiencies.

Research on wide-bandgap intermediate band solar cells and development of experimental techniques for their characterization

El trabajo que ha dado lugar a esta Tesis Doctoral se enmarca en la invesitagación en células solares de banda intermedia (IBSCs, por sus siglas en inglés). Se trata de un nuevo concepto de célula solar que ofrece la posibilidad de alcanzar altas eficiencias de conversión fotovoltaica. Hasta ahora, se han demostrado de manera experimental los fundamentos de operación de las IBSCs; sin embargo, esto tan sólo has sido posible en condicines de baja temperatura. El concepto de banda intermedia (IB, por sus siglas en inglés) exige que haya desacoplamiento térmico entre la IB y las bandas de valencia y conducción (VB and CB, respectivamente, por sus siglas en inglés). Los materiales de IB actuales presentan un acoplamiento térmico demasiado fuerte entre la IB y una de las otras dos bandas, lo cual impide el correcto funcionamiento de las IBSCs a temperatura ambiente. En el caso particular de las IBSCs fabricadas con puntos cuánticos (QDs, por sus siglas en inglés) de InAs/GaAs - a día de hoy, la tecnología de IBSC más estudiada - , se produce un rápido intercambio de portadores entre la IB y la CB, por dos motivos: (1) una banda prohibida estrecha (< 0.2 eV) entre la IB y la CB, E^, y (2) la existencia de niveles electrónicos entre ellas. El motivo (1) implica, a su vez, que la máxima eficiencia alcanzable en estos dispositivos es inferior al límite teórico de la IBSC ideal, en la cual E^ = 0.71 eV. En este contexto, nuestro trabajo se centra en el estudio de IBSCs de alto gap (o banda prohibida) fabricadsas con QDs, o lo que es lo mismo, QD-IBSCs de alto gap. Hemos fabricado e investigado experimentalmente los primeros prototipos de QD-IBSC en los que se utiliza AlGaAs o InGaP para albergar QDs de InAs. En ellos demostramos une distribución de gaps mejorada con respecto al caso de InAs/GaAs. En concreto, hemos medido valores de E^ mayores que 0.4 eV. En los prototipos de InAs/AlGaAs, este incremento de E^ viene acompaado de un incremento, en más de 100 meV, de la energía de activación del escape térmico. Además, nuestros dispositivos de InAs/AlGaAs demuestran conversión a la alza de tensión; es decir, la producción de una tensión de circuito abierto mayor que la energía de los fotones (dividida por la carga del electrón) de un haz monocromático incidente, así como la preservación del voltaje a temperaura ambiente bajo iluminación de luz blanca concentrada. Asimismo, analizamos el potencial para detección infrarroja de los materiales de IB. Presentamos un nuevo concepto de fotodetector de infrarrojos, basado en la IB, que hemos llamado: fotodetector de infrarrojos activado ópticamente (OTIP, por sus siglas en inglés). Nuestro novedoso dispositivo se basa en un nuevo pricipio físico que permite que la detección de luz infrarroja sea conmutable (ON y OFF) mediante iluminación externa. Hemos fabricado un OTIP basado en QDs de InAs/AlGaAs con el que demostramos fotodetección, bajo incidencia normal, en el rango 2-6/xm, activada ópticamente por un diodoe emisor de luz de 590 nm. El estudio teórico del mecanismo de detección asistido por la IB en el OTIP nos lleva a poner en cuestión la asunción de quasi-niveles de Fermi planos en la zona de carga del espacio de una célula solar. Apoyados por simuaciones a nivel de dispositivo, demostramos y explicamos por qué esta asunción no es válida en condiciones de corto-circuito e iluminación. También llevamos a cabo estudios experimentales en QD-IBSCs de InAs/AlGaAs con la finalidad de ampliar el conocimiento sobre algunos aspectos de estos dispositivos que no han sido tratados aun. En particular, analizamos el impacto que tiene el uso de capas de disminución de campo (FDLs, por sus siglas en inglés), demostrando su eficiencia para evitar el escape por túnel de portadores desde el QD al material anfitrión. Analizamos la relación existente entre el escape por túnel y la preservación del voltaje, y proponemos las medidas de eficiencia cuántica en función de la tensión como una herramienta útil para evaluar la limitación del voltaje relacionada con el túnel en QD-IBSCs. Además, realizamos medidas de luminiscencia en función de la temperatura en muestras de InAs/GaAs y verificamos que los resltados obtenidos están en coherencia con la separación de los quasi-niveles de Fermi de la IB y la CB a baja temperatura. Con objeto de contribuir a la capacidad de fabricación y caracterización del Instituto de Energía Solar de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (IES-UPM), hemos participado en la instalación y puesta en marcha de un reactor de epitaxia de haz molecular (MBE, por sus siglas en inglés) y el desarrollo de un equipo de caracterización de foto y electroluminiscencia. Utilizando dicho reactor MBE, hemos crecido, y posteriormente caracterizado, la primera QD-IBSC enteramente fabricada en el IES-UPM. ABSTRACT The constituent work of this Thesis is framed in the research on intermediate band solar cells (IBSCs). This concept offers the possibility of achieving devices with high photovoltaic-conversion efficiency. Up to now, the fundamentals of operation of IBSCs have been demonstrated experimentally; however, this has only been possible at low temperatures. The intermediate band (IB) concept demands thermal decoupling between the IB and the valence and conduction bands. Stateof- the-art IB materials exhibit a too strong thermal coupling between the IB and one of the other two bands, which prevents the proper operation of IBSCs at room temperature. In the particular case of InAs/GaAs quantum-dot (QD) IBSCs - as of today, the most widely studied IBSC technology - , there exist fast thermal carrier exchange between the IB and the conduction band (CB), for two reasons: (1) a narrow (< 0.2 eV) energy gap between the IB and the CB, EL, and (2) the existence of multiple electronic levels between them. Reason (1) also implies that maximum achievable efficiency is below the theoretical limit for the ideal IBSC, in which EL = 0.71 eV. In this context, our work focuses on the study of wide-bandgap QD-IBSCs. We have fabricated and experimentally investigated the first QD-IBSC prototypes in which AlGaAs or InGaP is the host material for the InAs QDs. We demonstrate an improved bandgap distribution, compared to the InAs/GaAs case, in our wide-bandgap devices. In particular, we have measured values of EL higher than 0.4 eV. In the case of the AlGaAs prototypes, the increase in EL comes with an increase of more than 100 meV of the activation energy of the thermal carrier escape. In addition, in our InAs/AlGaAs devices, we demonstrate voltage up-conversion; i. e., the production of an open-circuit voltage larger than the photon energy (divided by the electron charge) of the incident monochromatic beam, and the achievement of voltage preservation at room temperature under concentrated white-light illumination. We also analyze the potential of an IB material for infrared detection. We present a IB-based new concept of infrared photodetector that we have called the optically triggered infrared photodetector (OTIP). Our novel device is based on a new physical principle that allows the detection of infrared light to be switched ON and OFF by means of an external light. We have fabricated an OTIP based on InAs/AlGaAs QDs with which we demonstrate normal incidence photodetection in the 2-6 /xm range optically triggered by a 590 nm light-emitting diode. The theoretical study of the IB-assisted detection mechanism in the OTIP leads us to questioning the assumption of flat quasi-Fermi levels in the space-charge region of a solar cell. Based on device simulations, we prove and explain why this assumption is not valid under short-circuit and illumination conditions. We perform new experimental studies on InAs/GaAs QD-IBSC prototypes in order to gain knowledge on yet unexplored aspects of the performance of these devices. Specifically, we analyze the impact of the use of field-damping layers, and demonstrate this technique to be efficient for avoiding tunnel carrier escape from the QDs to the host material. We analyze the relationship between tunnel escape and voltage preservation, and propose voltage-dependent quantum efficiency measurements as an useful technique for assessing the tunneling-related limitation to the voltage preservation of QD-IBSC prototypes. Moreover, we perform temperature-dependent luminescence studies on InAs/GaAs samples and verify that the results are consistent with a split of the quasi-Fermi levels for the CB and the IB at low temperature. In order to contribute to the fabrication and characterization capabilities of the Solar Energy Institute of the Universidad Polite´cnica de Madrid (IES-UPM), we have participated in the installation and start-up of an molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) reactor and the development of a photo and electroluminescence characterization set-up. Using the MBE reactor, we have manufactured and characterized the first QD-IBSC fully fabricated at the IES-UPM.

Review of experimental results related to the operation of intermediate band solar cells

The intermediate band solar cell (IBSC) has drawn the attention of the scientific community as a means to achieve high-efficiency solar cells. Complete IBSC devices have been manufactured using quantum dots, highly mismatched alloys, or bulk materials with deep-level impurities. Characterization of these devices has led, among other experimental results, to the demonstration of the two operating principles of an IBSC: the production of the photocurrent from the absorption of two below bandgap energy photons and the preservation of the output voltage of the solar cell. This study offers a thorough compilation of the most relevant reported results for the variety of technologies investigated and provides the reader with an updated record of IBSC experimental achievements. A table condensing the reported experimental results is presented, which provides information at a glance about achievements, as well as pending results, for every studied technology.

New strategies in laser processing of TCOs for light management improvement in thin-film silicon solar cells

Light confinement strategies play a crucial role in the performance of thin-film (TF) silicon solar cells. One way to reduce the optical losses is the texturing of the transparent conductive oxide (TCO) that acts as the front contact. Other losses arise from the mismatch between the incident light spectrum and the spectral properties of the absorbent material that imply that low energy photons (below the bandgap value) are not absorbed, and therefore can not generate photocurrent. Up-conversion techniques, in which two sub-bandgap photons are combined to give one photon with a better matching with the bandgap, were proposed to overcome this problem. In particular, this work studies two strategies to improve light management in thin film silicon solar cells using laser technology. The first one addresses the problem of TCO surface texturing using fully commercial fast and ultrafast solid state laser sources. Aluminum doped Zinc Oxide (AZO) samples were laser processed and the results were optically evaluated by measuring the haze factor of the treated samples. As a second strategy, laser annealing experiments of TCOs doped with rare earth ions are presented as a potential process to produce layers with up-conversion properties, opening the possibility of its potential use in high efficiency solar cells.

Silicon PV module customization using laser technology for new BIPV applications

It is well known that lasers have helped to increase efficiency and to reduce production costs in the photovoltaic (PV) sector in the last two decades, appearing in most cases as the ideal tool to solve some of the critical bottlenecks of production both in thin film (TF) and crystalline silicon (c-Si) technologies. The accumulated experience in these fields has brought as a consequence the possibility of using laser technology to produce new Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) products with a high degree of customization. However, to produce efficiently these personalized products it is necessary the development of optimized laser processes able to transform standard products in customized items oriented to the BIPV market. In particular, the production of semitransparencies and/or freeform geometries in TF a-Si modules and standard c-Si modules is an application of great interest in this market. In this work we present results of customization of both TF a-Si modules and standard monocrystalline (m-Si) and policrystalline silicon (pc-Si) modules using laser ablation and laser cutting processes. A discussion about the laser processes parameterization to guarantee the functionality of the device is included. Finally some examples of final devices are presented with a full discussion of the process approach used in their fabrication.

A multi-level analysis of innovation diffusion: The case of solar photovoltaic systems in Germany and the disillusion of grid parity

¿Suministrarán las fuentes de energía renovables toda la energía que el mundo necesita algún día? Algunos argumentan que sí, mientras que otros dicen que no. Sin embargo, en algunas regiones del mundo, la producción de electricidad a través de fuentes de energía renovables ya está en una etapa prometedora de desarrollo en la que su costo de generación de electricidad compite con fuentes de electricidad convencionales, como por ejemplo la paridad de red. Este logro ha sido respaldado por el aumento de la eficiencia de la tecnología, la reducción de los costos de producción y, sobre todo, los años de intervenciones políticas de apoyo financiero. La difusión de los sistemas solares fotovoltaicos (PV) en Alemania es un ejemplo relevante. Alemania no sólo es el país líder en términos de capacidad instalada de sistemas fotovoltaicos (PV) en todo el mundo, sino también uno de los países pioneros donde la paridad de red se ha logrado recientemente. No obstante, podría haber una nube en el horizonte. La tasa de difusión ha comenzado a declinar en muchas regiones. Además, las empresas solares locales – que se sabe son importantes impulsores de la difusión – han comenzado a enfrentar dificultades para manejar sus negocios. Estos acontecimientos plantean algunas preguntas importantes: ¿Es ésta una disminución temporal en la difusión? ¿Los adoptantes continuarán instalando sistemas fotovoltaicos? ¿Qué pasa con los modelos de negocio de las empresas solares locales? Con base en el caso de los sistemas fotovoltaicos en Alemania a través de un análisis multinivel y dos revisiones literarias complementarias, esta tesis doctoral extiende el debate proporcionando riqueza múltiple de datos empíricos en un conocimiento de contexto limitado. El primer análisis se basa en la perspectiva del adoptante, que explora el nivel "micro" y el proceso social que subyace a la adopción de los sistemas fotovoltaicos. El segundo análisis es una perspectiva a nivel de empresa, que explora los modelos de negocio de las empresas y sus roles impulsores en la difusión de los sistemas fotovoltaicos. El tercero análisis es una perspectiva regional, la cual explora el nivel "meso", el proceso social que subyace a la adopción de sistemas fotovoltaicos y sus técnicas de modelado. Los resultados incluyen implicaciones tanto para académicos como políticos, no sólo sobre las innovaciones en energía renovable relativas a la paridad de red, sino también, de manera inductiva, sobre las innovaciones ambientales impulsadas por las políticas que logren la competitividad de costes. ABSTRACT Will renewable energy sources supply all of the world energy needs one day? Some argue yes, while others say no. However, in some regions of the world, the electricity production through renewable energy sources is already at a promising stage of development at which their electricity generation costs compete with conventional electricity sources’, i.e., grid parity. This achievement has been underpinned by the increase of technology efficiency, reduction of production costs and, above all, years of policy interventions of providing financial support. The diffusion of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in Germany is an important frontrunner case in point. Germany is not only the top country in terms of installed PV systems’ capacity worldwide but also one of the pioneer countries where the grid parity has recently been achieved. However, there might be a cloud on the horizon. The diffusion rate has started to decline in many regions. In addition, local solar firms – which are known to be important drivers of diffusion – have started to face difficulties to run their businesses. These developments raise some important questions: Is this a temporary decline on diffusion? Will adopters continue to install PV systems? What about the business models of the local solar firms? Based on the case of PV systems in Germany through a multi-level analysis and two complementary literature reviews, this PhD Dissertation extends the debate by providing multiple wealth of empirical details in a context-limited knowledge. The first analysis is based on the adopter perspective, which explores the “micro” level and the social process underlying the adoption of PV systems. The second one is a firm-level perspective, which explores the business models of firms and their driving roles in diffusion of PV systems. The third one is a regional perspective, which explores the “meso” level, i.e., the social process underlying the adoption of PV systems and its modeling techniques. The results include implications for both scholars and policymakers, not only about renewable energy innovations at grid parity, but also in an inductive manner, about policy-driven environmental innovations that achieve the cost competiveness.

Understanding and improving the chemical vapor deposition process for solar grade silicon production

Esta Tesis Doctoral se centra en la investigación del proceso de producción de polisilicio para aplicaciones fotovoltaicas (FV) por la vía química; mediante procesos de depósito en fase vapor (CVD). El polisilicio para la industria FV recibe el nombre de silicio de grado solar (SoG Si). Por un lado, el proceso que domina hoy en día la producción de SoG Si está basado en la síntesis, destilación y descomposición de triclorosilano (TCS) en un reactor CVD -denominado reactor Siemens-. El material obtenido mediante este proceso es de muy alta pureza, pero a costa de un elevado consumo energético. Así, para alcanzar los dos principales objetivos de la industria FV basada en silicio, bajos costes de producción y bajo tiempo de retorno de la energía invertida en su fabricación, es esencial disminuir el consumo energético de los reactores Siemens. Por otro lado, una alternativa al proceso Siemens considera la descomposición de monosilano (MS) en un reactor de lecho fluidizado (FBR). Este proceso alternativo tiene un consumo energético mucho menor que el de un reactor Siemens, si bien la calidad del material resultante es también menor; pero ésta puede ser suficiente para la industria FV. A día de hoy los FBR deben aún abordar una serie de retos para que su menor consumo energético sea una ventaja suficiente comparada con otras desventajas de estos reactores. En resumen, la investigación desarrollada se centra en el proceso de depósito de polysilicio por CVD a partir de TCS -reactor Siemens-; pero también se investiga el proceso de producción de SoG Si en los FBR exponiendo las fortalezas y debilidades de esta alternativa. Para poder profundizar en el conocimiento del proceso CVD para la producción de polisilicio es clave el conocimiento de las reacciones químicas fundamentales y cómo éstas influencian la calidad del producto resultante, al mismo tiempo que comprender los fenómenos responsables del consumo energético. Por medio de un reactor Siemens de laboratorio en el que se llevan a cabo un elevado número de experimentos de depósito de polisilicio de forma satisfactoria se adquiere el conocimiento previamente descrito. Se pone de manifiesto la complejidad de los reactores CVD y de los problemas asociados a la pérdidas de calor de estos procesos. Se identifican las contribuciones a las pérdidas de calor de los reactores CVD, éstas pérdidas de calor son debidas principalmente a los fenómenos de radiación y, conducción y convección vía gases. En el caso de los reactores Siemens el fenómeno que contribuye en mayor medida al alto consumo energético son las pérdidas de calor por radiación, mientras que en los FBRs tanto la radiación como el calor transferido por transporte másico contribuyen de forma importante. Se desarrolla un modelo teórico integral para el cálculo de las pérdidas de calor en reactores Siemens. Este modelo está formado a su vez por un modelo para la evaluación de las pérdidas de calor por radiación y modelos para la evaluación de las pérdidas de calor por conducción y convección vía gases. Se ponen de manifiesto una serie de limitaciones del modelo de pérdidas de calor por radiación, y se desarrollan una serie de modificaciones que mejoran el modelo previo. El modelo integral se valida por medio un reactor Siemens de laboratorio, y una vez validado se presenta su extrapolación a la escala industrial. El proceso de conversión de TCS y MS a polisilicio se investiga mediante modelos de fluidodinámica computacional (CFD). Se desarrollan modelados CFD para un reactor Siemens de laboratorio y para un prototipo FBR. Los resultados obtenidos mediante simulación son comparados, en ambos casos, con resultados experimentales. Los modelos desarrollados se convierten en herramientas para la identificación de aquellos parámetros que tienen mayor influencia en los procesos CVD. En el caso del reactor Siemens, ambos modelos -el modelo integral y el modelado CFD permiten el estudio de los parámetros que afectan en mayor medida al elevado consumo energético, y mediante su análisis se sugieren modificaciones para este tipo de reactores que se traducirían en un menor número de kilovatios-hora consumidos por kilogramo de silicio producido. Para el caso del FBR, el modelado CFD permite analizar el efecto de una serie de parámetros sobre la distribución de temperaturas en el lecho fluidizado; y dicha distribución de temperaturas está directamente relacionada con los principales retos de este tipo de reactores. Por último, existen nuevos conceptos de depósito de polisilicio; éstos se aprovechan de la ventaja teórica de un mayor volumen depositado por unidad de tiempo -cuando una mayor superficie de depósito está disponible- con el objetivo de reducir la energía consumida por los reactores Siemens. Estos conceptos se exploran mediante cálculos teóricos y pruebas en el reactor Siemens de laboratorio. ABSTRACT This Doctoral Thesis comprises research on polysilicon production for photovoltaic (PV) applications through the chemical route: chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process. PV polysilicon is named solar grade silicon (SoG Si). On the one hand, the besetting CVD process for SoG Si production is based on the synthesis, distillation, and decomposition of thriclorosilane (TCS) in the so called Siemens reactor; high purity silicon is obtained at the expense of high energy consumption. Thus, lowering the energy consumption of the Siemens process is essential to achieve the two wider objectives for silicon-based PV technology: low production cost and low energy payback time. On the other hand, a valuable variation of this process considers the use of monosilane (MS) in a fluidized bed reactor (FBR); lower output material quality is obtained but it may fulfil the requirements for the PV industry. FBRs demand lower energy consumption than Siemens reactors but further research is necessary to address the actual challenges of these reactors. In short, this work is centered in polysilicon CVD process from TCS -Siemens reactor-; but it also offers insights on the strengths and weaknesses of the FBR for SoG Si production. In order to aid further development in polysilicon CVD is key the understanding of the fundamental reactions and how they influence the product quality, at the same time as to comprehend the phenomena responsible for the energy consumption. Experiments conducted in a laboratory Siemens reactor prove the satisfactory operation of the prototype reactor, and allow to acquire the knowledge that has been described. Complexity of the CVD reactors is stated and the heat loss problem associated with polysilicon CVD is addressed. All contributions to the energy consumption of Siemens reactors and FBRs are put forward; these phenomena are radiation and, conduction and convection via gases heat loss. In a Siemens reactor the major contributor to the energy consumption is radiation heat loss; in case of FBRs radiation and heat transfer due to mass transport are both important contributors. Theoretical models for radiation, conduction and convection heat loss in a Siemens reactor are developed; shaping a comprehensive theoretical model for heat loss in Siemens reactors. Limitations of the radiation heat loss model are put forward, and a novel contribution to the existing model is developed. The comprehensive model for heat loss is validated through a laboratory Siemens reactor, and results are scaled to industrial reactors. The process of conversion of TCS and MS gases to solid polysilicon is investigated by means of computational fluid-dynamics models. CFD models for a laboratory Siemens reactor and a FBR prototype are developed. Simulated results for both CVD prototypes are compared with experimental data. The developed models are used as a tool to investigate the parameters that more strongly influence both processes. For the Siemens reactors, both, the comprehensive theoretical model and the CFD model allow to identify the parameters responsible for the great power consumption, and thus, suggest some modifications that could decrease the ratio kilowatts-hour per kilogram of silicon produced. For the FBR, the CFD model allows to explore the effect of a number of parameters on the thermal distribution of the fluidized bed; that is the main actual challenge of these type of reactors. Finally, there exist new deposition surface concepts that take advantage of higher volume deposited per time unit -when higher deposition area is available- trying to reduce the high energy consumption of the Siemens reactors. These novel concepts are explored by means of theoretical calculations and tests in the laboratory Siemens prototype.

Life cycle assessment of concentrated solar power (CSP) and the influence of hybridising with natural gas

Purpose Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) plants based on parabolic troughs utilize auxiliary fuels (usually natural gas) to facilitate start-up operations, avoid freezing of HTF and increase power output. This practice has a significant effect on the environmental performance of the technology. The aim of this paper is to quantify the sustainability of CSP and to analyse how this is affected by hybridisation with different natural gas (NG) inputs. Methods A complete Life Cycle (LC) inventory was gathered for a commercial wet-cooled 50 MWe CSP plant based on parabolic troughs. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate the environmental performance of the plant operating with different NG inputs (between 0 and 35% of gross electricity generation). ReCiPe Europe (H) was used as LCA methodology. CML 2 baseline 2000 World and ReCiPe Europe E were used for comparative purposes. Cumulative Energy Demands (CED) and Energy Payback Times (EPT) were also determined for each scenario. Results and discussion Operation of CSP using solar energy only produced the following environmental profile: climate change 26.6 kg CO2 eq/KWh, human toxicity 13.1 kg 1,4-DB eq/KWh, marine ecotoxicity 276 g 1,4-DB eq/KWh, natural land transformation 0.005 m2/KWh, eutrophication 10.1 g P eq/KWh, acidification 166 g SO2 eq/KWh. Most of these impacts are associated with extraction of raw materials and manufacturing of plant components. The utilization NG transformed the environmental profile of the technology, placing increasing weight on impacts related to its operation and maintenance. Significantly higher impacts were observed on categories like climate change (311 kg CO2 eq/MWh when using 35 % NG), natural land transformation, terrestrial acidification and fossil depletion. Despite its fossil nature, the use of NG had a beneficial effect on other impact categories (human and marine toxicity, freshwater eutrophication and natural land transformation) due to the higher electricity output achieved. The overall environmental performance of CSP significantly deteriorated with the use of NG (single score 3.52 pt in solar only operation compared to 36.1 pt when using 35 % NG). Other sustainability parameters like EPT and CED also increased substantially as a result of higher NG inputs. Quasilinear second-degree polynomial relationships were calculated between various environmental performance parameters and NG contributions. Conclusions Energy input from auxiliary NG determines the environmental profile of the CSP plant. Aggregated analysis shows a deleterious effect on the overall environmental performance of the technology as a result of NG utilization. This is due primarily to higher impacts on environmental categories like climate change, natural land transformation, fossil fuel depletion and terrestrial acidification. NG may be used in a more sustainable and cost-effective manner in combined cycle power plants, which achieve higher energy conversion efficiencies.

Spectral study and classification of worldwide locations considering several multijunction solar cell technologies

Multi-junction solar cells are widely used in high-concentration photovoltaic systems (HCPV) attaining the highest efficiencies in photovoltaic energy generation. This technology is more dependent on the spectral variations of the impinging Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) than conventional photovoltaics based on silicon solar cells and consequently demands a deeper knowledge of the solar resource characteristics. This article explores the capabilities of spectral indexes, namely, spectral matching ratios (SMR), to spectrally characterize the annual irradiation reaching a particular location on the Earth and to provide the necessary information for the spectral optimization of a MJ solar cell in that location as a starting point for CPV module spectral tuning. Additionally, the relationship between such indexes and the atmosphere parameters, such as the aerosol optical depth (AOD), precipitable water (PW), and air mass (AM), is discussed using radiative transfer models such as SMARTS to generate the spectrally-resolved DNI. The network of ground-based sun and sky-scanning radiometers AERONET (AErosol RObotic NETwork) is exploited to obtain the atmosphere parameters for a selected bunch of 34 sites worldwide. Finally, the SMR indexes are obtained for every location, and a comparative analysis is carried out for four architectures of triple junction solar cells, covering both lattice match and metamorphic technologies. The differences found among cell technologies are much less significant than among locations.

Fresnel-based modular solar fields for performance/cost optimization in solar thermal power plants: A comparison with parabolic trough collectors.

Linear Fresnel collectors are identified as a technology that should play a main role in order to reduce cost of Concentrating Solar Power. An optical and thermal analysis of the different blocks of the solar power plant is carried out, where Fresnel arrays are compared with the most extended linear technology: parabolic trough collectors. It is demonstrated that the optical performance of Fresnel array is very close to that of PTC, with similar values of maximum flux intensities. In addition, if the heat carrier fluid flows in series by the tubes of the receiver, relatively high thermal efficiencies are achieved. Thus, an annual solar to electricity efficiency of 19% is expected, which is similar to the state of the art in PTCs; this is done with a reduction of costs, thanks to lighter structures, that drives to an estimation of LCOE of around 6.5 c€/kWh.