Planning and Management of Mobility in Natural Protected Areas

The paper describes some relevant results of an on-going research aiming to elaborate a methodology to help the mobility management in natural parks, compatible with their protection missions: it has been developed a procedure to reproduce the mobility-environment relationships in various operational conditions. The final purpose is the identification of: a) the effects of various choices in transport planning, both at long term and strategic level; b) the most effective policies of mobility management. The work is articulated in the following steps: 1) definition of protected area on the basis of ecological and socio-economic criteria and legislative constraints; 2) analysis of mobility needs in the protected areas; 3) reconstruction of the state of the art of mobility management in natural parks at European level; 4) analysis of used traffic flows measurement methods; 5) analysis of environmental impacts due to transport systems modelling (air pollution and noise only); 6) identification of mitigation measures to be potentially applied. The whole methodology has been tested and validated on Italian case studies: i) the concerned area has been zoned according to the land-use peculiarities; ii) the local situations of transport infrastructure (roads and parking), services (public transport systems) and rules (traffic regulations) have been mapped with references to physical and functional attributes; iii) the mobility, both systematic and touristic, has been represented in an origin-destination matrix. By means of an assignment model the flows have been distributed and the corresponding average speeds to quantify gaseous and noise emissions was calculated, the criticalities in the reference scenario have been highlighted, as well as some alternative scenarios, including both operational and infrastructural measures have been identified. The comparison between projects and reference scenario allowed the quantification of effects (variation of emissions) for each scenario and a selection of the most effective management actions to be taken.

Planning and management of mobility in natural protected areas

The final purpose is the identification of: a) the effects of various choices in transport planning, both at long term and strategic level; b) the most effective policies of mobility management. The preliminary work was articulated in the following steps: 1) definition of protected area on the basis of ecological and socio-economic criteria and legislative constraints; 2) analysis of mobility needs in the protected areas; 3) reconstruction of the state of the art of mobility management in natural parks at European level; 4) analysis of used traffic flows measurement methods; 5) analysis of environmental impacts due to transport systems modelling (limited to air pollution and noise); 6) identification of mitigation measures to the potentially applied. The whole methodology has been firstly tested on the case study of the National Park of ?Gran Sasso and Monti della Laga? and further validated on the National Park of ?Gargano?, both located Italy: i) the concerned area has been zoned according to the land-use peculiarities; ii) the local situations of transport infrastructure (roads and parking), services (public transport systems) and rules (traffic regulations) have been mapped with references to physical and functional attributes; iii) the mobility, both systematic and touristic, has been synthetically represented in an origin-destination matrix. By means of an assignment model it has been determined the distribution of flows and the corresponding average speeds to quantify gaseous and noise emissions. On this basis the environmental criticalities in the reference scenario have been highlighted, as well as some alternative scenarios including both operational and infrastructural measures have been identified. The comparison between the projects and the reference scenario allowed the quantification of the effects (variation of emissions) for each scenario and a selection of the most effective management actions to be taken.

Emergencia y convergencia de las corrientes urbanísticas alternativas al desarrollo disperso. Europa y los EE.UU. 1980/2010

La presente tesis doctoral identifica el reciente fenómeno de la emergenciai de corrientes urbanísticas que actúan en la periferia urbana a partir de una concepción del diseño urbano que propugna modelos más compactos, a escala humana, de carácter integral y sostenible, como alternativa al desarrollo disperso y difusoii que caracteriza en gran medida a la ciudad contemporánea. Se develan las diferencias de origen y las coincidencias entre las distintas líneas de pensamiento que definen a estas emergentes corrientes alternativas, situándolas dentro de determinados enfoques planteados en la presente tesis, y demostrando con ello, las progresivas áreas de convergencia que permiten su ordenamiento como fenómeno histórico común. Estas distintas líneas de pensamiento, que derivan en las corrientes urbanísticas alternativas, se manifiestan primeramente como reacción a las operaciones modernistas de la posguerra, pero crecientemente expresan una visión contestataria a la expansión urbana descontrolada iii, de bajas densidades, zonificación excluyente y dependiente del automóvil; modelo asociado a las autopistas urbanas, los llamados nuevos artefactos urbanos y las grandes parcelas destinadas a proyectos habitacionales. Una realidad expresada en variados contextos en el ámbito de la globalización económica y cultural que, en gran medida, se singulariza como responsable de las profundas transformaciones urbanas, de la consecuente gradual pérdida de habitabilidad en las ciudades y del impacto sobre el medio natural; cuestión a tratar en el “Marco conceptual” referido al contexto y problema de la tesis. Se estudian los planteamientos fundamentales que postulan estas corrientes alternativas en el contexto de la expansión urbana horizontal, con el fin de identificar las distintas vertientes o líneas existentes, de establecer sus orígenes, enfoques, vínculos y alcances, permitiendo con ello caracterizar el fenómeno en sí desde una visión original e integradora. Estas corrientes a tratar han surgido en diversos momentos y con diversas particularidades, pero con mayor intensidad, articulación y visibilidad a partir de los años ochenta y especialmente en los noventa del siglo recién pasado, fundamentalmente en Europa y en los Estados Unidos de América, representando el “Cuerpo teórico” de esta tesis. Emergen en un escenario de creciente empoderamiento ciudadano, en tiempos de una mayor conciencia ambiental y social, y desde la convicción extendida de las limitaciones de un desarrollismo que, en términos del territorio físico, se manifiesta en el crecimiento urbano por extensión, incremental y desarticulado; tienen distintos idearios de origen, algunos en aparente contradicción o manifiesta oposición entre sí; se articulan desde diversos énfasis y surgen a partir de distintas aproximaciones. Para poder comprender el fenómeno de manera integral, se identifican y observan las tendencias contemporáneas y las correspondientes corrientes principales del diseño urbano; se indaga en sus discursos críticos y se ordenan en función de tres enfoques, los cuales reúnen los fundamentos esenciales de las distintas miradas críticas al modelo disperso y difuso: el enfoque neotradicional, el enfoque de la movilidad, y el enfoque ecológicoiv. Reconociendo la importancia de las operaciones de renovación urbana en la “ciudad intramuros” y siendo partícipes de estas intervenciones, las diferentes corrientes observadas desde los tres enfoques planteados, tienen un común denominador disciplinar en cuanto a su preocupación por generar actuaciones urbanas viables y practicables que causen un menor impacto sobre el territorio y que ofrezcan las condiciones para mejorar la habitabilidad en la ciudad, asumiendo el crecimiento hacia las periferias desde una aproximación alternativa a los modelos hoy predominantes. Las distintas corrientes, desde los particulares enfoques señalados, pretenden en síntesis, un desarrollo que refuerce el rol del diseño urbano, que promueva modelos más compactosv, de usos mixtos compatibles con la residencia y con espacios públicos de calidad, a una escala apropiada para la movilidad peatonal, favoreciendo de esta manera el uso del transporte público y velando consecuentemente por aquellos aspectos que mejoren las condiciones de sostenibilidad. En definitiva, el ideario de las corrientes caracterizadas en esta tesis como alternativas, se origina y se sostiene a partir de la convicción de situar a la disciplina del diseño urbano en su justa medida en el desarrollo contemporáneo, en el convencimiento de la relevancia del proyecto urbano en el ordenamiento del territorio y el crecimiento de las ciudades actuales. Una convergencia implícita a tratarse en la “Discusión de resultados”. La preocupación que reflejan las distintas corrientes estudiadas por el hábitat construido, en cuanto a su condición de acoger y estimular la dimensión humana de las ciudades, puede resumirse en una cita del arquitecto danés Jan Gehl, que interpreta a muchas de las líneas de pensamiento que se abordan en esta tesis, en cuanto al deseo de crear mejores ciudades: “Aspiramos generar ciudades animadas, saludables, atractivas, sostenibles y seguras, con el propósito de mejorar la calidad de vida de la gente”. ABSTRACT This Ph.D thesis identifies the recent phenomenon of the emergence of alternative urban design currents in the city edge, that focus on a more compact, human-scale oriented, comprehensive and sustainable urban design as an alternative to the overwhelming advance of sprawl that largely characterizes the contemporary city. It singles out the differences in origin, as well as the similarities drawn from the different lines of thought that define these emergent alternative currents, placing them within certain approaches proposed in this thesis, and thereby demonstrating the progressive areas of convergence that allow to arrange them as a common historical phenomenon. Indeed, the different lines of thought that drift towards these alternative urbanistic currents, first appear as a reaction to the post- World War II Modernist housing projects, and increasingly more so as a response to urban sprawl; an ever expanding phenomemnon expressed in different contexts within the economic and cultural globalization, largely singled out as being responsible for the deep urban transformations, the consequent gradual loss of livability and the impact on natural environment, setting the “Conceptual framework” of this thesis. Within the context of urban sprawl, the fundamental principles of these alternative currents are studied to establish their origins, approaches, linkages and scope, in order to zero in on the various aspects or existing lines and thereby allowing the identification of the phenomenon from an original and inclusive vision. The alternative currents to be dealt with, emerged at different times and with diverse characteristics, nonetheless it is in the eighties and especially during the nineties, mainly in Europe and the United States, where they appear with greater intensity, coordination and visibility, representing the “Theoretical body” of this thesis. The above mentioned currents arise in a scenario of increasing citizen empowerment in times of growing environmental and social awareness, along with the widespread conviction of the limitations of a quantitative development expressed as a physical manifestation in urban sprawl. These alternative currents have a different philosophy in origin, some are in apparent contradiction or in definite opposition, being organized from different approaches and emphases. To comprehend this phenomenon, it is necessary to identify and analize the contemporary trends and the main currents of urban design, inquiring and arranging their critical discourses according to three approaches that meet the essential foundations of the various critical perspectives of urban sprawl: the neo-traditional approach, the mobility approach, the ecological approach. Acknowledging the importance of urban renovation in the “Inner City”, and being partakers of these interventions, the different currents identified from these three approaches, concur in their concern for the development of viable and workable alternatives to urban sprawl; models that cause a lower impact on the territory, whilst improving livability in the city. The different currents recognized within the above mentioned approaches, advocate in brief, for a development that strengthens the role of urban design, that encourages more compact models, mixed-uses, and quality public spaces, considering the human scale and walkability; thereby increasing public transport and promoting consequently, the conditions for sustainable development. Ultimately, the philosophy of the so called alternative currents, is based on the belief of placing urban design as a fundamental discipline in contemporary urban development. The concern for the built habitat reflected by the various currents studied, as of their condition to accept and stimulate the human dimension of the city, can be summed up in a quote from Danish architect Jan Gehl, who represents many of the lines of thought addressed, in the belief of creating better cities: “We aspire to create cities that are lively, healthy, attractive, sustainable and safe-and thereby improve people’s quality of life”.

Caracterización y análisis del coste de mejora de la calidad de servicio en transporte urbano en autobús, basado en la metodología ABC (activity based costing)

El estudio de la calidad de servicio en transporte público ha tenido distintos enfoques, tanto en la investigación como en sus aplicaciones prácticas, tales como el desarrollo del método SERVQUAL, los proyectos QUATTRO y EQUIP de la Comisión Europea, el Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual y finalmente el estándar EN 13816, siendo la consideración principal la calidad desde el punto de vista del usuario, es decir, la calidad percibida, cuyo objetivo en la práctica trata de obtener un Índice de Satisfacción del Cliente como medida de la calidad global. Esta aproximación deja de lado aspectos tanto sobre calidad suministrada como sobre los suministradores del servicio, las administraciones y los operadores, particularmente en cuanto a las implicaciones económicas. El objetivo principal de la presente tesis es la estimación del impacto económico real de la mejora de atributos de calidad para un operador de autobús urbano. En el capítulo 2, se lleva a cabo un análisis del estado del arte sobre el estudio de la calidad, tanto de los métodos de estudio, como de su aplicación al campo de transporte público, y, específicamente, del estudio de costes. En los capítulos 3 y 4 se propone la aplicación de la metodología ABC (Activity Based Costing) para el caso de un contrato de servicio de transporte público en autobús en la Comunidad de Madrid, concretamente la conexión de Tres Cantos. Para ello se utilizan datos de encuestas de calidad esperada y percibida por los usuarios, junto con información económica y de actividad, así como entrevistas a personal de la empresa, conformando todo ello una metodología compacta de investigación y análisis. Los resultados de las encuestas y los análisis posteriores identificaron la frecuencia de servicio, la puntualidad de los autobuses y la seguridad de la conducción como las tres variables mas importantes desde el punto de vista del usuario, y ha sido en referencia a estas tres variables sobre las que se ha desarrollado la aplicación del método ABC contenida en el capítulo 5. Los resultados descritos en el capítulo 6 muestran la consistencia y la aplicabilidad de esta metodología, superando las simplificaciones de los procedimientos tradicionales contables. En cuanto a los resultados obtenidos, se ha comprobado que una aproximación tradicional basada en costes por kilometro puede llegar a sobrevalorar los costes asociados a mejoras de calidad hasta tres veces los costes calculados según el método ABC. Finalmente en el capítulo 7 se recogen las principales conclusiones y se apuntan algunas líneas futuras de investigación basadas en mejoras sobre la aplicación y transferibilidad de los resultados. The study of service quality and its implication for transport contracts has several approaches in research and practical applications, such as the development of the SERVQUAL method, the UE QUATTRO and EQUIP research projects, the Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual and finally the EN 13816 standard. In all cases the main stream is the consideration of quality from the user’s point of view, thus obtaining a Customer Satisfaction Index as a measurement of the overall service quality. This approach ignores quality consequences for transport providers, authorities and operators, particularly economic implications. The main target of this thesis is to estimate the real economic impact of improving quality attributes for a bus operator. Chapter 2 includes a thorough analysis of the state of the art of general methodologies on service quality, their applications for public transport, and particularly for quality costing. In chapters 3 and 4, the Activity Based Costing (ABC) methodology is proposed for a suburban bus contract in Madrid, Tres Cantos. Perceived and expected quality surveys are used together with economic and performance information, as well as interviews with key staff from the operator. The whole set of surveys, interviews and ABC methodology puts together a comprehensive approach for analysis and research. Surveys and subsequent analysis shows service headway, punctuality and safety as the three most important service attributes from the user’s point of view. The proposed methodology has been applied to these three variables, as described in chapter 5. Results obtained in chapter 6 show the consistency and practicality of this methodology, overcoming simplifications from traditional accounting procedures. According to the latter, a calculation of costs based on mileage can overvalue quality improvements up to three times the results following ABC methodology. Finally, in chapter 7, the main conclusions are highlighted and some future research is suggested in terms of application improvements as well as results transferability.

Assessing the impact of adaptive accessibility on the optimal transport policy implementation by using an integrated land-use/transport model for Madrid

Accessibility is an essential concept widely used to evaluate the impact of land-use and transport strategies in transport and urban planning. Accessibility is typically evaluated by using a transport model or a land-use model independently or successively without a feedback loop, thus neglecting the interaction effects between the two systems and the induced competition effects among opportunities due to accessibility improvements. More than a mere methodological curiosity, failure to account for land- use/transport interactions and the competition effect may result in large underestimation of the policy effects. With the recent development of land-use and transport interaction (LUTI) models, there is a growing interest in using these models to adequately measure accessibility and evaluate its impact. The current study joins this research stream by embedding an accessibility measure in a LUTI model with two main aims. The first aim is to account for adaptive accessibility, namely the adjustment of the potential accessibility due to the effect of competition among opportunities (e.g., workplaces) as a result of improved accessibility. LUTI models are particularly suitable for assessing adaptive accessibility because the competition factor is a function of the number of jobs, which is related to land-use attractiveness and the number of workers which is related, among other factors, to the transport demand. The second aim is to identify the optimal implementation scenario of policy measures on the basis of the potential and adaptive accessibility and analyse the results in terms of social welfare and accessibility. The metropolitan area of Madrid is used as a case-study and two transport policy instruments, namely a cordon toll and bus frequency increase, have been chosen for the simulation study in order to present the usefulness of the approach to urban planners and policy makers. The MARS model (Metropolitan Activity Relocation Simulator) calibrated for Madrid was employed as the analysis tool. The impact of accessibility is embedded in the model through a social welfare function that includes not only costs and benefits to both road users and transport operators, but also costs and benefits for the government and society in general (external costs). An optimisation procedure is performed by the MARS model for maximizing the value of objective function in order to find the best (optimal) policy imp lementations intensity (i.e., price, frequency). Last, the two policy strategies are evaluated in terms of their accessibility. Results show that the accessibility with competition factor influences the optimal policy implementation level and also generates different results in terms of social welfare. In addition, mapping the difference between the potential and the adaptive accessibility indicators shows that the main changes occur in areas where there is a strong competition among land-use opportunities.

EU support mechanisms to promote public private partnerships for financing Trans-European transport infrastructure

Since the mid 80ies the Trans ‐European Transport Network (TEN‐T) policy has been setting the framework for the development of infrastructure for the smooth functioning of the internal market within the European Union (EU). Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) have always been regarded by the EU as a key instrument to promote the TEN‐T.

The Role of Multilateral Coordination in Transport Policy: The Case of the Maghreb Countries

El WCTR es un congreso de reconocido prestigio internacional en el ámbito de la investigación del transporte y aunque las actas publicadas están en formato digital y sin ISSN ni ISBN, lo consideramos lo suficientemente importante como para que se considere en los indicadores. This paper aims at describing how multilateral cooperation policies are influencing national transport policies in developing countries. It considers the evolution of national transport policies and institutional frameworks in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia in the last 10 years, and analyses the influence that EU cooperation programmes (particularly those within the Euromed programme initiative) and international coordination activities have played in the evolution towards efficient, sustainable transport systems in those countries. Notwithstanding the significant socioeconomic, political and institutional differences among the three countries, three major traits are common to the transport policy framework in all cases: a focus on megaprojects; substitution of traditional ministerial services by ad hoc public agencies to develop those megaprojects, and progressive involvement of international private players for the operation (and eventually the design and construction) of new projects, focusing on know-how transfer rather than investment needs. The hypotheses is that these similarities are largely due to the influence of the international cooperation promoted by the European Union since the mid- 1990s. The new decision making situation is characterized by the involvement of two new relevant stakeholders, the EU and a limited number of global transport operators. The hierarchical governance model evolves towards more complex structures, which explain the three common traits mentioned above. International coordination has been crucial for developing national transport visions, which are coherent with a regional, transnational system.

Modelling of chloride transport in non-saturated concrete : from microscale to macroscale

Corrosion of steel bars embedded in concrete has a great influence on structural performance and durability of reinforced concrete. Chloride penetration is considered to be a primary cause of concrete deterioration in a vast majority of structures. Therefore, modelling of chloride penetration into concrete has become an area of great interest. The present work focuses on modelling of chloride transport in concrete. The differential macroscopic equations which govern the problem were derived from the equations at the microscopic scale by comparing the porous network with a single equivalent pore whose properties are the same as the average properties of the real porous network. The resulting transport model, which accounts for diffusion, migration, advection, chloride binding and chloride precipitation, consists of three coupled differential equations. The first equation models the transport of chloride ions, while the other two model the flow of the pore water and the heat transfer. In order to calibrate the model, the material parameters to determine experimentally were identified. The differential equations were solved by means of the finite element method. The classical Galerkin method was employed for the pore solution flow and the heat transfer equations, while the streamline upwind Petrov Galerkin method was adopted for the transport equation in order to avoid spatial instabilities for advection dominated problems. The finite element codes are implemented in Matlab® . To retrieve a good understanding of the influence of each variable and parameter, a detailed sensitivity analysis of the model was carried out. In order to determine the diffusive and hygroscopic properties of the studied concretes, as well as their chloride binding capacity, an experimental analysis was performed. The model was successfully compared with experimental data obtained from an offshore oil platform located in Brazil. Moreover, apart from the main objectives, numerous results were obtained throughout this work. For instance, several diffusion coefficients and the relation between them are discussed. It is shown how the electric field set up between the ionic species depends on the gradient of the species’ concentrations. Furthermore, the capillary hysteresis effects are illustrated by a proposed model, which leads to the determination of several microstructure properties, such as the pore size distribution and the tortuosity-connectivity of the porous network. El fenómeno de corrosión del acero de refuerzo embebido en el hormigón ha tenido gran influencia en estructuras de hormigón armado, tanto en su funcionalidad estructural como en aspectos de durabilidad. La penetración de cloruros en el interior del hormigón esta considerada como el factor principal en el deterioro de la gran mayoría de estructuras. Por lo tanto, la modelización numérica de dicho fenómeno ha generado gran interés. El presente trabajo de investigación se centra en la modelización del transporte de cloruros en el interior del hormigón. Las ecuaciones diferenciales que gobiernan los fenómenos a nivel macroscópico se deducen de ecuaciones planteadas a nivel microscópico. Esto se obtiene comparando la red porosa con un poro equivalente, el cual mantiene las mismas propiedades de la red porosa real. El modelo está constituido por tres ecuaciones diferenciales acopladas que consideran el transporte de cloruros, el flujo de la solución de poro y la transferencia de calor. Con estas ecuaciones se tienen en cuenta los fenómenos de difusión, migración, advección, combinación y precipitación de cloruros. El análisis llevado a cabo en este trabajo ha definido los parámetros necesarios para calibrar el modelo. De acuerdo con ellas, se seleccionaron los ensayos experimentales a realizar. Las ecuaciones diferenciales se resolvieron mediante el método de elementos finitos. El método clásico de Galerkin se empleó para solucionar las ecuaciones de flujo de la solución de poro y de la transferencia de calor, mientras que el método streamline upwind Petrov-Galerkin se utilizó para resolver la ecuación de transporte de cloruros con la finalidad de evitar inestabilidades espaciales en problemas con advección dominante. El código de elementos finitos está implementado en Matlab® . Con el objetivo de facilitar la comprensión del grado de influencia de cada variable y parámetro, se realizó un análisis de sensibilidad detallado del modelo. Se llevó a cabo una campaña experimental sobre los hormigones estudiados, con el objeto de obtener sus propiedades difusivas, químicas e higroscópicas. El modelo se contrastó con datos experimentales obtenidos en una plataforma petrolera localizada en Brasil. Las simulaciones numéricas corroboraron los datos experimentales. Además, durante el desarrollo de la investigación se obtuvieron resultados paralelos a los planteados inicialmente. Por ejemplo, el análisis de diferentes coeficientes de difusión y la relación entre ellos. Así como también se observó que el campo eléctrico establecido entre las especies iónicas disueltas en la solución de poro depende del gradiente de concentración de las mismas. Los efectos de histéresis capilar son expresados por el modelo propuesto, el cual conduce a la determinación de una serie de propiedades microscópicas, tales como la distribución del tamaño de poro, además de la tortuosidad y conectividad de la red porosa.

Optimal and Long-Term Dynamic Transport Policy Design: Seeking Maximum Social Welfare through a Pricing Scheme.

This article presents an alternative approach to the decision-making process in transport strategy design. The study explores the possibility of integrating forecasting, assessment and optimization procedures in support of a decision-making process designed to reach the best achievable scenario through mobility policies. Long-term evaluation, as required by a dynamic system such as a city, is provided by a strategic Land-Use and Transport Interaction (LUTI) model. The social welfare achieved by implementing mobility LUTI model policies is measured through a cost-benefit analysis and maximized through an optimization process throughout the evaluation period. The method is tested by optimizing a pricing policy scheme in Madrid on a cordon toll in a context requiring system efficiency, social equity and environmental quality. The optimized scheme yields an appreciable increase in social surplus through a relatively low rate compared to other similar pricing toll schemes. The results highlight the different considerations regarding mobility impacts on the case study area, as well as the major contributors to social welfare surplus. This leads the authors to reconsider the cost-analysis approach, as defined in the study, as the best option for formulating sustainability measures.

Time derivatives in air temperature and enthalpy as non-invasive welfare indicators during long distance animal transport in Spain and Portugal.

High temperatures and relative humidity can compromise animal welfare on the farm level, but less is known about those changes during long distance transport of domestic animals to slaughter. Although upper temperature limits have been established to transport pigs in Europe, few indices include relative or absolute humidity maxima or mention appropriate enthalpy ranges.

Modelling of chloride transport in non-saturated concrete : from microscale to macroscale

A model for chloride transport in concrete is proposed. The model accounts for transport several transport mechanisms such as diffusion, advection, migration, etc. This work shows the chloride transport equations at the macroscopic scale in non-saturated concrete. The equations involve diffusion, migration, capillary suction, chloride combination and precipitation mechanisms. The material is assumed to be infinitely rigid, though the porosity can change under influence of chloride binding and precipitation. The involved microscopic and macroscopic properties of the materials are measured by standardized methods. The variables which must be imposed on the boundaries are temperature, relative humidity and chloride concentration. The output data of the model are the free, bound, precipitated and total chloride ion concentrations, as well as the pore solution content and the porosity. The proposed equations are solved by means of the finite element method (FEM) implemented in MATLAB (classical Galerkin formulation and the streamline upwind Petrov-Galerkin (SUPG) method to avoid spatial instabilities for advection dominated flows).

Optimal and Long-Term Dynamic Transport Policy Design: Seeking Maximum Social Welfare through a Pricing Scheme

This article presents an alternative approach to the decision-making process in transport strategy design. The study explores the possibility of integrating forecasting, assessment and optimization procedures in support of a decision-making process designed to reach the best achievable scenario through mobility policies. Long-term evaluation, as required by a dynamic system such as a city, is provided by a strategic Land-Use and Transport Interaction (LUTI) model. The social welfare achieved by implementing mobility LUTI model policies is measured through a cost-benefit analysis and maximized through an optimization process throughout the evaluation period. The method is tested by optimizing a pricing policy scheme in Madrid on a cordon toll in a context requiring system efficiency, social equity and environmental quality. The optimized scheme yields an appreciable increase in social surplus through a relatively low rate compared to other similar pricing toll schemes. The results highlight the different considerations regarding mobility impacts on the case study area, as well as the major contributors to social welfare surplus. This leads the authors to reconsider the cost-analysis approach, as defined in the study, as the best option for formulating sustainability measures.

A general framework to testing the effect of transport policy measures to achieve a modal shift: a sequental hybrid model

In order to achieve to minimize car-based trips, transport planners have been particularly interested in understanding the factors that explain modal choices. In the transport modelling literature there has been an increasing awareness that socioeconomic attributes and quantitative variables are not sufficient to characterize travelers and forecast their travel behavior. Recent studies have also recognized that users? social interactions and land use patterns influence travel behavior, especially when changes to transport systems are introduced, but links between international and Spanish perspectives are rarely deal. In this paper, factorial and path analyses through a Multiple-Indicator Multiple-Cause (MIMIC) model are used to understand and describe the relationship between the different psychological and environmental constructs with social influence and socioeconomic variables. The MIMIC model generates Latent Variables (LVs) to be incorporated sequentially into Discrete Choice Models (DCM) where the levels of service and cost attributes of travel modes are also included directly to measure the effect of the transport policies that have been introduced in Madrid during the last three years in the context of the economic crisis. The data used for this paper are collected from a two panel smartphone-based survey (n=255 and 190 respondents, respectively) of Madrid.

The impact of the economic crisis and policy actions on GHG emissions from road transport in Spain

Road traffic is the greatest contributor to the carbon footprint of the transport sector and reducing it has become one of the main targets of sustainable transport policies. An analysis of the main factors influencing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is essential for designing new energy- and environmentally efficient strategies for the road transport. This paper addresses this need by (i) identifying factors which influence the carbon footprint, including traffic activity, fuel economy and socioeconomic development; and (ii) proposing a methodological framework which uses Modified Laspeyres Index decomposition to analyze the effect of important drivers on the changes in emissions of road transport in Spain during the period from 1990 to 2010. The results demonstrate that the country׳s economic growth has been closely linked to the rise in GHG emissions. The innovative contribution of this paper is the special analysis of the changes in mobility patterns and GHG emissions during the economic crisis, when, for the first time, Spanish road traffic emissions decreased. The reduction of road transport and improved energy efficiency has been powerful contributors to this decrease, demonstrating the effectiveness of energy-saving measures. On the basis of this analysis, several tailored policy recommendations have been suggested for future implementation.

A methodology to compute emission projections from road transport (EmiTRANS)

Atmospheric emissions from road transport have increased all around the world during the last decades more rapidly than from other pollution sources. For instance, they contribute to more than 25% of total CO, CO2, NOx, and fine particle emissions in most of the European countries. This situation shows the importance of road transport when complying with emission ceilings and air quality standards applied to these pollutants. This paper presents a modelling system to perform atmospheric emission projections (simultaneously both air quality pollutants and greenhouse gases) from road transport including the development of a tailored software tool (EmiTRANS) as a planning tool. The methodology has been developed with two purposes: 1) to obtain outputs used as inputs to the COPERT4 software to calculate emission projections and 2) to summarize outputs for policy making evaluating the effect of emission abatement measures for a vehicle fleet. This methodology has been applied to the calculation of emission projections in Spain up to 2020 under several scenarios, including a sensitivity analysis useful for a better interpretation and confidence building on the results. This case study demonstrates the EmiTRANS applicability to a country, and points out the need for combining both technical and non-technical measures (such as behavioural changes or demand management) to reduce emissions, indirectly improving air quality and contributing to mitigate climate change.