Plasma–wall interaction in laser inertial fusion reactors: novel proposals for radiation tests of first wall materials

Dry-wall laser inertial fusion (LIF) chambers will have to withstand strong bursts of fast charged particles which will deposit tens of kJ m−2 and implant more than 1018 particles m−2 in a few microseconds at a repetition rate of some Hz. Large chamber dimensions and resistant plasma-facing materials must be combined to guarantee the chamber performance as long as possible under the expected threats: heating, fatigue, cracking, formation of defects, retention of light species, swelling and erosion. Current and novel radiation resistant materials for the first wall need to be validated under realistic conditions. However, at present there is a lack of facilities which can reproduce such ion environments. This contribution proposes the use of ultra-intense lasers and high-intense pulsed ion beams (HIPIB) to recreate the plasma conditions in LIF reactors. By target normal sheath acceleration, ultra-intense lasers can generate very short and energetic ion pulses with a spectral distribution similar to that of the inertial fusion ion bursts, suitable to validate fusion materials and to investigate the barely known propagation of those bursts through background plasmas/gases present in the reactor chamber. HIPIB technologies, initially developed for inertial fusion driver systems, provide huge intensity pulses which meet the irradiation conditions expected in the first wall of LIF chambers and thus can be used for the validation of materials too.

Nanostructured tungsten as a first wall material for the future nuclear fusion reactors

The lack of materials able to withstand the severe radiation conditions (high thermal loads and atomistic damage) expected in fusion reactors is the actual bottle neck for fusion to become a reality. The main requisite for plasma facing materials (PFM) is to have excellent structural stability since severe cracking or mass loss would hamper their protection role which turns out to be unacceptable. Additional practical requirements for plasma facing materials are among others: (i) high thermal shock resistance, (ii) high thermal conductivity (iii) high melting point (iv) low physical and chemical sputtering, and (v) low tritium retention.

Results of the JET real-time disruption predictor in the ITER-like wall campaigns

The impact of disruptions in JET became even more important with the replacement of the previous Carbon Fiber Composite (CFC) wall with a more fragile full metal ITER-like wall (ILW). The development of robust disruption mitigation systems is crucial for JET (and also for ITER). Moreover, a reliable real-time (RT) disruption predictor is a pre-requisite to any mitigation method. The Advance Predictor Of DISruptions (APODIS) has been installed in the JET Real-Time Data Network (RTDN) for the RT recognition of disruptions. The predictor operates with the new ILW but it has been trained only with discharges belonging to campaigns with the CFC wall. 7 realtime signals are used to characterize the plasma status (disruptive or non-disruptive) at regular intervals of 1 ms. After the first 3 JET ILW campaigns (991 discharges), the success rate of the predictor is 98.36% (alarms are triggered in average 426 ms before the disruptions). The false alarm and missed alarm rates are 0.92% and 1.64%.

Comparison of particle dispersion obtained with simple stochastic models and les in pipe flow

A hybrid Eulerian-Lagrangian approach is employed to simulate heavy particle dispersion in turbulent pipe flow. The mean flow is provided by the Eulerian simulations developed by mean of JetCode, whereas the fluid fluctuations seen by particles are prescribed by a stochastic differential equation based on normalized Langevin. The statistics of particle velocity are compared to LES data which contain detailed statistics of velocity for particles with diameter equal to 20.4 µm. The model is in good agreement with the LES data for axial mean velocity whereas rms of axial and radial velocities should be adjusted.

Numerical characterization of particle dispersion in the turbulent recirculation zones of sudden expansion pipe flows

The dispersion of solid particles in the turbulent recirculation zones of sudden expansion pipes can be characterized by different Stokes numbers and mean drift parameter and its study is important because this kind of flows appears in many technological applications.

El Entorno Aumentado: Imperativo informacional para una ecología digital de lo arquitectónico

Esta tesis se suma a los intentos teóricos de clarificar la impronta del dominio digital en lo arquitectónico. Propone una cartografía crítica para reconstruir el proceso de tal convergencia considerando aquellos acontecimientos reveladores que lo han pautado. La integración de la extensión digital propia las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación en el contexto tradicional arquitectónico ha supuesto el advenimiento de un ecosistema artificial complejo. A esta realidad o proceso concurrente se la denomina el Entorno Aumentado. La línea principal de investigación explora el desarrollo de la interacción hombre-máquina, en sendas trayectorias sincrónicas convergentes. El análisis se aborda por tanto desde la consideración de esa naturaleza dual, atendiendo simultáneamente a la humanización del dominio digital o cómo la computación se adapta a la condición natural de ser humano, y a la digitalización del ser humano o cómo éste asume el imperativo digital. El análisis resulta vertebrado desde la condición panóptica del punto de observación del acontecimiento: la cuarta pared, entendida como pantalla y punto de inflexión que estructura la convergencia de los entornos físico y digital. La reflexión acometida sobre la construcción del Entorno Aumentado procura la verificación de la tesis, que es central en esta investigación: la multiplicación dimensional del lugar físico mediante su extensión con un campo informacional procedente del dominio digital, y sus efectos en la construcción de la nueva ecología digital propia del Entorno Aumentado. Esta circunstancia se produce tras la eclosión de la Revolución Digital en la segunda mitad del siglo XX, el consecuente incremento de la interacción entre los entornos digital y físico, y el alcance de un nivel superior de comunicación en los procesos arquitectónicos. Los síntomas del Entorno Aumentado se hacen notar en nuestra contemporaneidad; en ese sentido, la tesis alcanza un diagnóstico del cambio. La fractura y obsolescencia del límite espacio-temporal establecido por las dicotomías históricas privado-público, casa-ciudad, trabajo-ocio,…etc., o la vigencia del proyecto procedimental son algunas de sus consecuencias en el modo de abordar la disciplina arquitectónica. Abstract This dissertation aims to complete the theoretical attempts to clarify the digital domain imprint on the architectural realm. It constructs a critical cartography to reconstruct the process of such convergence, considering those principal events who have scheduled it. The integration of TIC’s digital extension through the traditional architectural context has meant the advent of an artificial complex ecosystem. This reality or concurrent process is called The Augmented Environment. The key research attempt explores man-machine interaction process in both synchronous converging trajectories. The analysis therefore addresses from the consideration of this dual nature, focusing simultaneously in humanizing digital domain process or how the computer fits the natural condition of human beings, and in digitalizing human beings or how it affords the digital imperative. The analysis is structured from the panoptic condition of the event scope: the fourth wall as screen that structures the convergence of physical and digital environments. The examination of The Augmented Environment’s assembly pretends the verification of the central point of this research: the dimensional multiplication of physical space by extending informational fields from the digital domain, and its effects on the construction of the Augmented Environment new digital ecology. This circumstance occurs after the arrival of the Digital Revolution in the second half of the twentieth century, with the consequent increase in the interaction between digital and physical environments, and the reach of a higher level of communication in architectural processes. The Augmented Environment signs are alive nowadays; in that sense, the thesis reaches a diagnostic of the changes. The fracture and obsolescence of the time-space limit established by historic dichotomies as private-public, home-city, working-leisure...etc., or the validity of the procedural design are some of its consequences on the architectural discipline.

Technical criteria for the desing of foundation slabs and perimetral wall in difficult terrain in Madrid. Spain

This paper explains a procedure for the choice of ballast modules used for the design of direct continuous foundation in karst terrain. The presence of dangerous cavities is introduced in this procedure thereby evaluating risk failure. It also provides pertinent guidelines to direct the geotechnical survey of the terrain.

Technical criteria for the design of foundation slabs and perimetral wall in difficult terrain in south east Madrid, Spain

This paper explains a procedure for the choice of ballast modules used for the design of direct continuous foundation in karst terrain. The presence of dangerous cavities is introduced in this procedure thereby evaluating risk failure. It also provides pertinent guidelines to direct the geotechnical survey of the terrain.

Xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (XTH) overexpression affects growth and cell wall mechanics in etiolated Arabidopsis hypocotyls.

Growth and biomechanics of etiolated hypocotyls from Arabidopsis thaliana lines overexpressing xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase AtXTH18, AtXTH19, AtXTH20, and PttXET16-34 were studied. Overexpression of AtXTH18, AtXTH19, and AtXTH20 stimulated growth of hypocotyls, while PttXET16-34 overexpression did not show this effect. In vitro extension of frozen/thawed hypocotyls measured by a constant-load extensiometer started from a high-amplitude initial deformation followed by a slow time-dependent creep. Creep of growing XTH-overexpressing (OE) hypocotyls was more linear in time compared with the wild type at pH 5.0, reflecting their higher potential for long-term extension. XTH-OE plants deposited 65?84% more cell wall material per hypocotyl cross-sectional area than wild-type plants. As a result, their wall stress under each external load was lower than in the wild-type. Growing XTH-OE hypocotyls had higher values of initial deformation·stress?1 compared with the wild type. Plotting creep rates for each line under different loads against the respective wall stress values gave straight lines. Their slopes and intercepts with the abscissa correspond to ? (in vitro cell wall extensibility) and y (in vitro cell wall yield threshold) values characterizing cell wall material properties. The wall material in XTH-OE lines was more pliant than in the wild type due to lower y values. In contrast, the acid-induced wall extension in vitro resulted from increasing ? values. Thus, three factors contributed to the XTH-OE-stimulated growth in Arabidopsis hypocotyls: their more linear creep, higher values of initial deformation·stress?1, and lower y values.

Testing the performance of a green wall system on an experimental building in the summer

It is known that a green wall brings some advantages to a building. It constitutes a barrier against solar radiation, thus decreasing and delaying the incoming heat flux. The aim of this study is to quantify such advantages through analytical comparison between two facades, a vegetal facade and a conventional facade. Both were highly insulated (U-value = 0.3 W/m2K) and installed facing south on the same building in the central territory of Spain. In order to compare their thermal trend, a series of sensors were used to register superficial and indoor air temperature. The work was carried out between 17th August 2012 and 1st October 2012, with a temperature range of 12°C-36°C and a maximum horizontal radiation of 1020 W/m2. Results show that the indoor temperature of the green wall module was lower than the other. Besides, comparing superficial outdoor and indoor temperatures of the two walls to outdoor air temperatures, it was noticed that, due to the shading plants, the green wall superficial temperature was 5 °C lower on the facade, while the bare wall temperature was 15 °C higher. The living wall module temperature was 1.6 °C lower than the outdoor, while the values of the conventional one were similar to the outdoor air temperature.

An elicitor isolated from smut teliospores (Sporisorium scitamineum) enhances lignin deposition on the cell wall on both sclerenchyma and xylem in sugarcane leaves

Sugarcane leaf shows the classical arrangement of cells which defines a C4 species. Vascular bundles consist of xylem, phloem and fibres, surrounded by an outer layer of sclereids and an inner ring of stone cells associated with the phloem. Some sclereids located below and above the vascular bundles act as docking cells and connect the vascular bundle to the internal surfaces of upper and lower layers of the epidermis. A compact mass of sclereids occupies the total internal volume of the leaf edge. Neither docking cells nor the internal mass of sclereids in the edge were markedly coloured by acriflavin or phloroglucinol, indicating the absence of lignin in their cell walls. However, such staining indicated that fibres of the vascular bundle and the external layer of sclereids were strongly lignified. Incubation of leaf discs with an elicitor produced by the pathogen Sporisorium scitamineum increased the thickness of the lignified cell walls of sclereids as well as the mid and small xylem vessels, as a possible mechanical defense response to the potential entry of the pathogen.

Traslaciones Poéticas: un recorrido por la Friedrichstrasse de Mies van der Rohe en 1921. Arquitectura, fotografía y cine, la percepción en la arquitectura

El presente ensayo pretende aportar una reflexión sobre el amplio territorio de la imagen en la arquitectura hoy. Para ello un buen ejemplo es el proyecto del Rascacielos de la Friedrichstrasse, realizado por Mies van der Rohe en el periodo de entre guerras de 1921/22. Muchas son las razones que han hecho de esta obra la elegida, pero una más actual sobresale del resto: que de los cientos de ensayos vertidos sobre esta obra solo se haya comentado -salvo alguna excepción- las características objetuales de lo directamente descrito por las vistas -como si fuera un fiel reflejo de la realidad- sin entrar a analizar la verdadera naturaleza física y simbólica de lo representado como expresión subjetiva –espacial- de una arquitectura. Si su importancia como punto de inflexión en el desarrollo inicial de una obra plenamente moderna es un motivo más que suficiente para dedicarle un estudio pormenorizado, ya que puede resultar crucial para comprender los inicios del autor en el Movimiento Moderno. Su presencia como un reducido conjunto de cuatro vistas perspectivas, mezcla de una fotografía del lugar y de un dibujo realizado sobre la misma, acarrea en nuestra opinión significaciones igual de importantes para la comprensión de esta arquitectura que todas aquellas ideas descritas sobre las mismas. Creadas en una época seminal, cuando el lenguaje de la fotografía y el cine están en pleno desarrollo, se puede afirmar que el conjunto de representaciones del Rascacielos de la Friedrichstrasse forman parte como referente histórico de una de las primeras arquitecturas virtuales que pertenecen de pleno derecho al Movimiento Moderno. Paradigma de las más absoluta actualidad, por encontrarse en esa frontera de lo nunca realizado, pero sí asumible espacialmente como realidad fotográfica, las imágenes del rascacielos se pueden considerar así como una de las primeras reflexiones sobre la naturaleza virtual del proyecto arquitectónico postindustrial. No siendo novedoso que la descripción fotográfica de una obra absorba y comunique por sí misma las múltiples propiedades que esta posee, como tampoco lo es que la mayoría de arquitecturas se den por conocidas actualmente a través de los medios. Sorprende que hasta hoy no se hayan analizado con la misma intensidad las múltiples razones que dieron lugar a unas imágenes cuya poética da forma por igual a la arquitectura que representan. Si la intención es reflexionar así sobre este hecho contemporáneo mediante un ejemplo paradigmático, certificado por la historia, nos veremos obligados a emplear una metodología acorde a la condición dual que toda imagen mediatizada produce en su lectura como mezcla fluctuante entre lo que se interpreta de manera autónoma a través de lo representado y de los significados que la imagen adquiere a lo largo de su recorrido como referente histórico. Esta ambivalencia interpretativa llevará a organizar este ensayo mediante dos bloques claramente diferenciados que, complementarios entre sí, siguen el orden de lectura que toda imagen de una arquitectura ofrece a través de los medios. Así, una primera parte, titulada La imagen de una arquitectura, analiza la interpretación que la historia y el autor han dado al rascacielos por medio de su uso en las diferentes exposiciones, revistas, tratados de estilos y monografías de las que ha formado parte. Este recorrido, que es el verdadero espacio donde estas arquitecturas residen, limitado -por una cuestión de poner orden- al estudio a los países que acogieron en vida al autor, servirá para establecer una primera narrativa que expone las diferentes posiciones que la crítica ha producido a lo largo del tiempo. La presencia del primer rascacielos junto al segundo, en la publicación que el arquitecto realiza de manera temprana en Frühlicht, obligará a incorporar esta segunda solución como una parte más del estudio. Cargada de las citas obligadas, de las diferentes personalidades que se han enfrentado a dichos proyectos, este primer análisis historiográfico establece un primer estado de la cuestión donde se revela una lectura ambivalente de los rascacielos. Si la interpretación directa de sus imágenes ha permitido profundizar en las características del vidrio y sus reflejos y en la desnudez de una estructura metálica como claros ejemplos de una expresión moderna y tecnológica de vidrio y el acero. Las particulares formas triangulares del primero y las formas sinuosas del segundo han dado lugar a una multitud de calificaciones, de ser ejemplo tanto de un Expresionismo como de un dadaísmo o constructivismo, que con el tiempo han ido creciendo hacia una admiración artística con una fuerte carga poética. Este lectura histórica, que remata con un breve periodo más actual donde se inicia el cuestionamiento de su carácter utópico y se recupera puntualmente su naturaleza como proyecto, servirá para plantear finalmente una serie de dudas que, sin respuesta aparente, exigen revisar la lectura de sus imágenes como parte de lo que realmente son: expresión de una nueva arquitectura que a partir de ese preciso momento entra de pleno derecho en el Movimiento Moderno. Por otro lado, la existencia en el discurso posterior del arquitecto de un proceso de formalizacion altamente valorado por su autor y la presencia de igual a igual de un lugar en las representaciones y planos de los rascacielos, que la historia parece haber obviado, servirán como razón más que suficiente para la revisión de unas relaciones iniciales con la vanguardia -todavía hoy poco definidas- así como para proponer la lectura renovada de dichas propuestas en altura por lo que también son: proyectos que responden a unas necesidades espaciales de un lugar y tiempo muy determinados. Esta segunda parte, denominada La arquitectura de una imagen, se plantea así más como una inmersión total en el mundo del proyecto que una simple descripción nominal del mismo. Conscientemente simétrica y opuesta a un primer bloque histórico, esta segunda parte -mucho más extensa y parte central de esta tesis- se concentra en el análisis de las imágenes como: aquel conjunto de eventos históricos que aplicados sobre la ciudad, el lugar, el rascacielos, y los procesos técnicos de la imagen dieron lugar a estas arquitecturas como razón de ser. Consecuentemente se tratará pues de bucear en las razones que, ocultas como proceso de formalización, llevaron a Mies a dar un paso más allá hacia a una nueva manera de hacer, ver y pensar su arquitectura, de expresar un espacio. La aproximación a estas imágenes radicará por tanto en resaltar al mismo tiempo la naturaleza de unas representaciones cuyas características fotográficas son el fiel reflejo de una época donde los nuevos medios visuales –cine y fotografía- empiezan a ser cuestionados por su excesiva utilización. La complejidad de unos hechos coincidentes en el tiempo obligará a dividir este estudio en un primer acercamiento general, a la respuesta dada por una mayoría de participantes al concurso, para así cotejar la importancia de una actitud proyectual y contextual común de Mies y sus compañeros. Mezcla de requerimientos y necesidades de la propia historia de la parcela, de las peculiaridades de un lugar y las exigencias programáticas del concurso; el siguiente paso consistirá en reconstruir el proceso de formalización del conjunto de dibujos que caracterizan ambos proyectos para así comprender los mecanismo que, suspendidos como traslaciones entre las diferentes representaciones, operan en la realización física de dichas imágenes y complementan como pensamiento la idea arquitectónica de los mismos. Con lo que se pretende ofrecer dos cosas: una interpretación que tenga en cuenta la novedosa naturaleza de la manera de pensar lo fotográfico en el arquitecto, así como la particular idiosincrasia del momento en que estas concurren. Dicho de otro modo, se realizará una aproximación de las vistas del primer rascacielos que tenga en cuenta la historia tecnológica y visual que rodea al evento y las características de una ejecución física todavía hoy sin aclarar del todo. El descubrimiento de una serie de incoherencias geométricas en las plantas, alzado y vistas del primer proyecto llevará a argumentar la presencia de un trampantojo que, nunca antes revelado, se entiende lleno de unas intenciones espaciales plenamente vanguardistas. Interpretación arquitectónica de las imágenes donde la presencia de una serie de elementos directamente ligados al lenguaje fotográfico y cinematográfico se traduce en una nueva lectura espacial plenamente dinámica llena de dislocación, ritmo y simultaneidad alejada de la idea de ver la forma como un elemento permanentemente fijo. Sugerencia que nos lleva directamente a la lectura del segundo proyecto de rascacielos como una clara continuación de lo imaginado en el primero. Para finalizar, tras una revisión biográfica -previa al proyecto- que desvela unas preocupaciones urbanas y un deseo de cambio anterior al concurso de la Friedrichstrasse, se comparan estas nuevas significaciones espaciales con una práctica de vanguardia que, coetánea a la convocatoria de 1921, demuestran unas investigaciones muy similares con unos mismos intereses cinematográficos. La lectura de las propuestas de tres artistas próximos en ese momento al arquitecto -como son Hans Richter, Moholy-Nagy y El Lissitzky- permiten demostrar unas preocupaciones muy similares a lo conseguido por Mies con los rascacielos que parecen haber servido de ejemplo y motivación mutua para el surgimiento de una nueva espacialidad -más fluida-. Esta lectura permitirá recuperar la importancia de estos dos proyectos como la expresión directa de una nueva manera de pensar y hacer su arquitectura que ya no tendrá vuelta atrás en la obra de Mies. A la vez que recuperar la potencialidad poética de unas vistas que, así definidas reiteradamente por la crítica, se revelan ahora como directas transmisoras de ese deseo de cambio arquitectónico evidenciado en los proyectos posteriores. Racionalización de una poética que al ir más allá de la forma directamente transcrita permite establecer una última reflexión general sobre como opera la imagen en la arquitectura, así como la pertinencia crítica de este proyecto para con el mundo virtual de hoy. En definitiva, más allá del poder evocador de estas representaciones, este será un estudio que pretende cuestionar las características que la imagen de la arquitectura puede proponer más allá de su literalidad por medio de la fascinante interacción que se produce entre la imagen y lo espacialmente imaginado. Encuentros, recursos e intereses de una respuesta plenamente arquitectónica que, además de dar luz a un cambio tan inclasificable como moderno, abre el camino a la interpretación de un proceso de formalizacion que, reiteradamente defendido por su autor justifican una intensidad poética dada por la historia y reafirman una preocupación artística a menudo desmentida por su autor. Dicho de otro modo, si profundizar en las razones arquitectónicas, históricas y técnicas que llevan a Mies a realizar sus rascacielos, por medio de su relación con la vanguardia y el cine, arrojan luz y explican el cambio que se está gestando en el arquitecto cara una nueva espacialidad fluida. Reflexionar sobre su naturaleza espacial -de estas imágenes ya icónicas- equivale a aportar una reflexión crítica sobre la naturaleza simbólica de la imagen de la arquitectura hoy. “Aunque el puesto clave que ocupa el Rascacielos de la Friedrichstrasse dentro de la historia de la arquitectura moderna nunca ha sido seriamente cuestionado, la opinion critica al respecto siempre ha estado dividida. Desde la publicacion de la monografia de Philip Johnson sobre Mies en 1947, el muro cortina como una piel transparente que reviste el esqueleto estructural has ido aclamado como un gran avance pionero. Otros puntos de vista sobre el edificio, subrayando su supuesta planta expresionista, lo han visto como un esfuerzo un poco menos aventurado. Asi calibrada, la propuesta de Mies para la Friedrichstrasse es radicalmente moderna en mas de un sentido enfatizado por Johnson.” 1 W.Tegethoff ABSTRACT This essay reflects on the broad territory of the image in today’s architecture. One good example is the Friedrichstrasse Skyscraper design by Mies van der Rohe in 1921/22, during the period between World Wars I and II. There are many reasons why this work has been chosen, but one of the most recent stands out above the rest: of the hundreds of essays written on this work, comments have been made only (with the odd exception) on the objectual characteristics of what has been directly described by the views (as if it were a genuine reflection of reality), without analysing the real physical and symbolic nature of the representation a subjective (spatial) expression of architecture. If its importance as a point of inflection in the initial development of a completely modern work is more than enough reason to make a detailed study, since it may be crucial for understanding the author’s beginnings in the Modern Movement. Its presence as a reduced set of four views, the combination of a photograph of the place and a drawing made of it, in our opinion, carry meanings that are as important for understanding this architecture as all the ideas described about them. Created during an early period, when the languages of photography and cinema were in full swing, it can be said that the perspectives of the Friedrichstrasse Skyscraper form a historical reference of one of the first virtual architectures that belong entirely to the Modern Movement. A paradigm of the most absolute modernity owing to the fact that it is on that frontier of the never-accomplished, but spatially assumable as photographic reality, the images of the skyscraper can be considered as one of the first reflections on the virtual nature of post-industrial architectural design. There is nothing new in the fact that the photographic description of work absorbs and communicates on its own the multiple properties it involves and there is nothing new in the fact that most architectures become known today through the media. It is surprising that no analysis has been made to date, with the same intensity, of the many reasons that led to a number of images whose poetry add form to the architecture they represent. If the intention is to reflect on this contemporary fact using a paradigmatic example certified by history, we will be forced to use a methodology that corresponds to the dual condition produced by the interpretation of all media images as a fluctuating combination of what is interpreted independently through the representation and meanings the image acquires as a historical reference. This ambivalent interpretation will lead this essay to be structured in two clearly different and complementary blocks that follow the reading order offered by any image of architecture in the media. Thus, a first part, titled The image of an architecture, analyses the interpretation history and the author have given to the skyscraper through its use in the various exhibitions, magazines, style agreements and monographs in which it has been included. This examination, which is the real space in which these architectures reside, is (to delimit and organise the study) restricted to countries in which the author lived during his lifetime and it will help establish a first narrative that considers the different interpretations made by critics over time. The presence of the first skyscraper next to the second one in the publication the architect makes early on in Frühlicht will require the second solution to be incorporated as another part of the study. Laden with necessary quotes by the various personalities who have examined said designs, this first historiographical analysis establishes an initial state of the question that reveals an ambivalent interpretation of skyscrapers. If the direct interpretation of the images has made it possible to closely examine the characteristics of the glass and its reflections and the nudity of a metal structure as clear examples of a modern and technological expression of glass and steel. The particular triangular shapes of the former and the sinuous shapes of the latter have generated many classifications that suggest it is an example of Expressionism, Dadaism or Constructivism, which have grown over time into artistic admiration laden with poetry. This historical reading, which concludes with a more recent short period that begins to question the utopian character and recovers its nature as a project, will finally consider a number of doubts that have no apparent answer and require a revision of the reading of the images as part of what they actually are: expression of a new architecture that becomes part of the Modern Movement as from that precise moment. In addition, the existence in the architect’s subsequent discourse of a formalisation process highly valued by the author and the equal presence of a place in the representations and plans of a skyscraper history seems to have forgotten, will stand as more than sufficient reason for a revision of initial relations with the avantgarde -not particularly well defined today- together with a renewed reading of said vertical proposals for what they also are: projects that respond to the special needs of a very specific place and time. This second part, titled The architecture of an image, is presented more as a total immersion in the project world than a mere nominal description of it. Deliberately symmetrical and opposite to a historic first bloc, this second part (much longer and central part of the thesis) it will focus on analysing images as: the set of historical events that affected the skyscraper, city, place and technical processes image to provide these architectures with their raison d’être. Consequently, the aim is to delve in the reasons which, hidden as a formalisation process, led Mies to move on to a new form of doing, seeing and thinking his architecture, of expressing a space. The approach to these images will therefore lie in highlighting the nature of a number of representations whose photographic features are the true reflection of a period in which the new visual media (cinema and photography) begin to be questioned due to excessive use. The complexity of facts that coincide in time will require this study to be divided into a first general approach, with a response given by most of the participants in the competition, to compare the importance of a common approach in terms of project and context of the response given by Mies and his colleagues. A combination of requirements and needs of the very history of the plot of land, the peculiarities of a place and the programmatic requirements of the competition; the next step will reconstruct the formalisation process of the set of drawings that characterise both to understand the mechanism which, suspended like translations between the different representations, operates in the realisation of said images and complements as thought their architectural idea. The aim is thus to offer two things: an interpretation that takes into account the new way in which the architect works with photography, together with the particular idiosyncrasy of the moment at which they occur. In other words, the approach will focus on the views of the first skyscraper, which takes into account the technological and visual history that surrounds the event and the characteristics of a physical execution that still remains unexplained in full. The subsequent discovery of a number of geometrical incoherences in the floor plans, elevations and views of the first project will lead to an argument for the presence of trompe l’oeil which, never before revealed, is seen as laden with completely avant-garde spatial intentions. Architectural interpretation of the images where the presence of a number of elements directly linked to the languages of photography and cinema is translated into a new spatial reading that is completely dynamic and full of dislocation, rhythm and simultaneity far-removed from the idea of seeing shape as a permanently fixed element. This suggestion takes us to directly to the second skyscraper design as a clear continuation of what he imagined in the first. To end, after a preliminary biographical revision (previous to the project) that reveals urban concerns and a desire for change before the Friedrichstrasse competition, a comparison is made of these new spatial meanings with avant-garde practice which, contemporary with the 1921 competition, show very similar investigations with the same cinematographic interest. The reading of the proposals of three artists close to the architect at that time -i.e. Hans Richter, Moholy-Nagy and El Lissitzky- reveals concerns that are very similar to what Mies achieved with the skyscrapers that seem to have been used as an example and mutual motivation for the creation of a new (more fluent) spatiality. This interpretation will make it possible to recover the importance of these two projects as the direct expression of a new way of thinking and doing his architecture that was to remain fixed in Mies’ work. This also gives rise to the possibility of recovering the poetic potential of views which, as defined repeatedly by the critics, now stand as the direct transmitters of the desire for architectural change shown in later projects. A rationalisation of poetry which, by going beyond the directly transcribed form, gives rise to the establishment of one general final reflection on how the image works in architecture, together with the critical relevance of this design for today’s virtual world. In short, beyond the evocative power of images this will be a study which questions the characteristics the image of architecture can propose beyond its literality through the fascinating interaction between the image and spatially imagined. Encounters, resources and interests of a completely architectural response that, besides sheds light to a change that is as non-classifiable as it is modern, shows the way to the interpretation of a formalisation process which, repeatedly defined by the author, justifies a poetic intensity and confirms an artistic concern often denied by the author. In other words, examining the architectural, historical and technical reasons that led Mies to create his skyscrapers, thanks to its relationship with the avant-garde and cinema, sheds light on and explains the change taking place in the architect with regard to a new fluent spatiality. Reflecting on the spatial nature -of these iconic images- is tantamount to a critical reflection on the symbolic nature of architecture today. “Although the key position of the Friedrichstrasse Office Building within the early history of modern architecture has never been seriously challenged, critical opinion on it has always been divided. Ever since the publication of Philip Johnson’s monograph on Mies in 1947, the curtain wall as a transparent skin sheathing the skeleton structure has frequently been hailed as a pioneering breakthrough. Other views of the building, stressing its supposedly Expressionist plan, have seen it as a somewhat less adventurous effort. In fact, the project has never been regarded in abroad context. Thus measured, Mies’s proposal fro Friedrichstrasse is radically modern in more than the one respect emphasized by Johnson.” 1 W.Tegethoff

Chemical and structural analysis of Eucalyptus globulus and E. camaldulensis leaf cuticles: a lipidized cell wall region

The plant cuticle has traditionally been conceived as an independent hydrophobic layer that covers the external epidermal cell wall. Due to its complexity, the existing relationship between cuticle chemical composition and ultra-structure remains unclear to date. This study aimed to examine the link between chemical composition and structure of isolated, adaxial leaf cuticles of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E. globulus by the gradual extraction and identification of lipid constituents (cutin and soluble lipids), coupled to spectroscopic and microscopic analyses. The soluble compounds and cutin monomers identified could not be assigned to a concrete internal cuticle ultra-structure. After cutin depolymerization, a cellulose network resembling the cell wall was observed, with different structural patterns in the regions ascribed to the cuticle proper and cuticular layer, respectively. Our results suggest that the current cuticle model should be revised, stressing the presence and major role of cell wall polysaccharides. It is concluded that the cuticle may be interpreted as a modified cell wall region which contains additional lipids. The major heterogeneity of the plant cuticle makes it difficult to establish a direct link between cuticle chemistry and structure with the existing methodologies.

Development of an Elevated Temperature Loop Heat Pipe for Space Applications and Investigation of Non Condensable Gas Impact on its Performance

Un caloducto en bucle cerrado o Loop Heat Pipe (LHP) es un dispositivo de transferencia de calor cuyo principio de operación se basa en la evaporación/condensación de un fluido de trabajo, que es bombeado a través de un circuito cerrado gracias a fuerzas de capilaridad. Gracias a su flexibilidad, su baja masa y su mínimo (incluso nulo) consumo de potencia, su principal aplicación ha sido identificada como parte del subsistema de control térmico de vehículos espaciales. En el presente trabajo se ha desarrollado un LHP capaz de funcionar eficientemente a temperaturas de hasta 125 oC, siguiendo la actual tendencia de los equipos a bordo de satélites de incrementar su temperatura de operación. En la selección del diseño optimo para dicho LHP, la compatibilidad entre materiales y fluido de trabajo se identificó como uno de los puntos clave. Para seleccionar la mejor combinación, se llevó a cabo una exhaustiva revisión del estado del arte, además de un estudio especifico que incluía el desarrollo de un banco de ensayos de compatibilidad. Como conclusión, la combinación seleccionada como la candidata idónea para ser integrada en el LHP capaz de operar hasta 125 oC fue un evaporador de acero inoxidable, líneas de titanio y amoniaco como fluido de trabajo. En esa línea se diseñó y fabricó un prototipo para ensayos y se desarrolló un modelo de simulación con EcosimPro para evaluar sus prestaciones. Se concluyó que el diseño era adecuado para el rango de operación definido. La incompatibilidad entre el fluido de trabajo y los materiales del LHP está ligada a la generación de gases no condensables. Para un estudio más detallado de los efectos de dichos gases en el funcionamiento del LHP se analizó su comportamiento con diferentes cantidades de nitrógeno inyectadas en su cámara de compensación, simulando un gas no condensable formado en el interior del dispositivo. El estudio se basó en el análisis de las temperaturas medidas experimentalmente a distintos niveles de potencia y temperatura de sumidero o fuente fría. Adicionalmente, dichos resultados se compararon con las predicciones obtenidas por medio del modelo en EcosimPro. Las principales conclusiones obtenidas fueron dos. La primera indica que una cantidad de gas no condensable más de dos veces mayor que la cantidad generada al final de la vida de un satélite típico de telecomunicaciones (15 años) tiene efectos casi despreciables en el funcionamiento del LHP. La segunda es que el principal efecto del gas no condensable es una disminución de la conductancia térmica, especialmente a bajas potencias y temperaturas de sumidero. El efecto es más significativo cuanto mayor es la cantidad de gas añadida. Asimismo, durante la campaña de ensayos se observó un fenómeno no esperado para grandes cantidades de gas no condensable. Dicho fenómeno consiste en un comportamiento oscilatorio, detectado tanto en los ensayos como en la simulación. Este efecto es susceptible de una investigación más profunda y los resultados obtenidos pueden constituir la base para dicha tarea. ABSTRACT Loop Heat Pipes (LHPs) are heat transfer devices whose operating principle is based on the evaporation/condensation of a working fluid, and which use capillary pumping forces to ensure the fluid circulation. Thanks to their flexibility, low mass and minimum (even null) power consumption, their main application has been identified as part of the thermal control subsystem in spacecraft. In the present work, an LHP able to operate efficiently up to 125 oC has been developed, which is in line with the current tendency of satellite on-board equipment to increase their operating temperatures. In selecting the optimal LHP design for the elevated temperature application, the compatibility between the materials and working fluid has been identified as one of the main drivers. An extensive literature review and a dedicated trade-off were performed, in order to select the optimal combination of fluids and materials for the LHP. The trade-off included the development of a dedicated compatibility test stand. In conclusion, the combination of stainless steel evaporator, titanium piping and ammonia as working fluid was selected as the best candidate to operate up to 125 oC. An LHP prototype was designed and manufactured and a simulation model in EcosimPro was developed to evaluate its performance. The first conclusion was that the defined LHP was suitable for the defined operational range. Incompatibility between the working fluid and LHP materials is linked to Non Condensable Gas (NCG) generation. Therefore, the behaviour of the LHP developed with different amounts of nitrogen injected in its compensation chamber to simulate NCG generation, was analyzed. The LHP performance was studied by analysis of the test results at different temperatures and power levels. The test results were also compared to simulations in EcosimPro. Two additional conclusions can be drawn: (i) the effects of an amount of more than two times the expected NCG at the end of life of a typical telecommunications satellite (15 years) is almost negligible on the LHP operation, and (ii) the main effect of the NCG is a decrease in the LHP thermal conductance, especially at low temperatures and low power levels. This decrease is more significant with the progressive addition of NCG. An unexpected phenomenon was observed in the LHP operation with large NCG amounts. Namely, an oscillatory behaviour, which was observed both in the tests and the simulation. This effect provides the basis for further studies concerning oscillations in LHPs.

Dynamic earth pressures against a retaining wall caused by Rayleigh waves

An approximate procedure for studying harmonic soil-structure interaction problems is presented. The presence of Rayleigh waves is considered and the resulting governing equations of the dynamic soil-structure system are solved in the time domain. With this method the transient and steady states of a vibratory motion and also the nonlinear behaviour of the soil can be studied. As an example, the dynamic earth pressure against a rigid retaining wall is investigated. The loads are assumed to be harmonic Rayleigh waves with both static and dynamic surface surcharges. The dependence of the results on the excitation frequency is shown.