Vigilancia por análisis de ruido de los sensores de temperatura

En este proyecto se van a aplicar las técnicas de análisis de ruido para caracterizar la respuesta dinámica de varios sensores de temperatura, tanto termorresistencias de platino como de termopares. Estos sensores son imprescindibles para él correcto funcionamiento de las centrales nucleares y requieren vigilancia para garantizar la exactitud de las medidas. Las técnicas de análisis de ruido son técnicas pasivas, es decir, no afectan a la operación de la planta y permiten realizar una vigilancia in situ de los sensores. Para el caso de los sensores de temperatura, dado que se pueden asimilar a sistemas de primer orden, el parámetro fundamental a vigilar es el tiempo de respuesta. Éste puede obtenerse para cada una de las sondas por medio de técnicas en el dominio de la frecuencia (análisis espectral) o por medio de técnicas en el dominio del tiempo (modelos autorregresivos). Además de la estimación del tiempo de respuesta, se realizará una caracterización estadística de las sondas. El objetivo es conocer el comportamiento de los sensores y vigilarlos de manera que se puedan diagnosticar las averías aunque éstas estén en una etapa incipiente. ABSTRACT In this project we use noise analysis technique to study the dynamic response of RTDs (Resistant temperature detectors) and thermocouples. These sensors are essential for the proper functioning of nuclear power plants and therefore need to be monitored to guarantee accurate measurements. The noise analysis techniques do not affect plant operation and allow in situ monitoring of the sensors. Temperature sensors are equivalent to first order systems. In these systems the main parameter to monitor is the response time which can be obtained by means of techniques in the frequency domain (spectral analysis) as well as time domain (autoregressive models). Besides response time estimation the project will also include a statistical study of the probes. The goal is to understand the behavior of the sensors and monitor them in order to detect any anomalies or malfunctions even if they occur in an early stage.

Análisis dinámico experimental de edificios esbeltos

Es conocido que la variación del comportamiento dinámico de las estructuras puede ser empleado dentro de un sistema de monitorización de su integridad estructural. Así, este estudio tiene como objetivo comprender el comportamiento dinámico de edificios esbeltos, frente a diferentes agentes ambientales como la temperatura y/o dirección y velocidad del viento. En el marco de esta investigación, se estudian dos edificios: la Torre de la ETSI (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros) de Caminos, Canales y Puertos de la UPM (Universidad Politécnica de Madrid) y un edificio de viviendas situado en la calle de Arturo Soria de Madrid. Los datos medioambientales antes mencionados, se registraron con sendas estacionales meteorológicas situadas en las azoteas de ambos edificios. Se realiza el análisis modal operacional de ambas estructuras. Este análisis se realiza a partir de las mediciones de las aceleraciones ante excitaciones ambientales, es un análisis basado sólo en la respuesta de la estructura. Por tanto, no es necesario interrumpir el funcionamiento en servicio de la instalación, obteniendo su comportamientos en este estado. A partir de este análisis, se obtienen las frecuencias naturales, los amortiguamientos modales y las formas modales. Así, en este trabajo se ha estudiado la relación existente entre la variación en la estimación de las frecuencias naturales y la variación de los agentes ambientales (fundamentalmente la temperatura). Los ensayos dinámicos en los dos edificios mencionados anteriormente, se han realizado utilizando acelerómetros de alta sensibilidad sincronizados inalámbricamente, lo cual ha simplificado el trabajo experimental si lo comparamos con los sistemas tradicionales. Como resultado del trabajo realizado se pueden destacar los siguientes puntos: (i) se ha visto que con el equipamiento disponible se pueden realizar análisis dinámicos de edificios, (ii) se ha mejorado el conocimiento dinámico de estas estructuras, y (iii) se ha visto la importancia que pueden tener los agentes ambientales dependiendo por un lado del tipo estructura del edificio. A partir del trabajo, se podrían actualizar modelos matemáticos que sirvan para la predicción de daños en las estructuras, y por otro, se podrán eliminar los efectos de los agentes ambientales, lo cual es un punto vital si se quiere emplear los parámetros modales para el cálculo de indices de daño. La aplicación de este tipo de investigación ayudará a tener una información mayor sobre el comportamiento de las estructuras y así, en el futuro, poder realizar distintos tipos de procesos, como la formulación de modelos matemáticos que reflejen con mayor fidelidad el comportamiento real. De esta forma, la monitorización de los agentes medioambientales permitirán valorar la influencia de estas variaciones sobre la estructura pudiéndose eliminar estos efectos. Con ello, se mejora la incertidumbre en la variación de frecuencias que puede ser utilizada como un sistema de activación de alarmas frente a la detección de daños estructurales. It is known that the variation of the dynamic behavior of structures can be used within a system to monitor structural integrity. So, this study aims to understand the dynamic behavior of slender buildings, against different environmental agents such as temperature and / or wind direction and velocity. As part of this investigation, two buildings are studied: the ETSI's (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros) main tower of Escuela de Caminos, Canales y Puertos of UPM (Universidad Politécnica de Madrid) and a residential building located in the streets Arturo Soria Madrid. The environmental data were recorded with weather stations located on the roof of both buildings. In both structures a modal operational analysis has been carried out. This analysis is performed from the measurements of the acceleration to the environmental excitation, this analysis is based only on the response of the structure. Therefore, it is not necessary to interrupt the operation of the structure, getting its behavior in this state. From this analysis, the natural frequencies, modal damping and mode shapes are obtained. So, in this work we have studied the existing relationship between the variation in the estimate of the natural frequencies and the variation of environmental agents (mainly temperature). The dynamic tests in the two buildings mentioned above, have been made using high-sensitivity accelerometers wirelessly synchronized, which has simplified the experimental work when compared to traditional systems. As a result of work performed can highlight the following points: (i) it has been found that with the available equipment can perform dynamic analysis of buildings, (ii) has improved dynamic knowledge of these structures, and, (iii) can be seen the potential importance of environmental agents depending on the type of building structure. From the work, mathematical models can be updated that serve to prediction of damage to structures, and on the other side, may eliminate the effects of environmental agents, which is a vital point if you want to use the modal parameters for calculating damage ratings. The application of this type of research will help to have more information about the behavior of structures and so, in the future, conduct various processes, as the formulation of mathematical models that reflect more accurately an actual behavior. In this way the monitoring of environmental agents will allow evaluate the influence of these variations on the structure being possible eliminate these effects. Thereby, improvement the uncertainty in the frequencies variation that can be used as an alarm activation system from detection of structural damage.

Sustainability assessment of energy saving measures: A multi-criteria approach for residential buildings retrofitting—A case study of the Spanish housing stock

The building sector is well known to be one of the key energy consumers worldwide. The renovation of existing buildings provides excellent opportunities for an effective reduction of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions but it is essential to identify the optimal strategies. In this paper a multi-criteria methodology is proposed for the comparative analysis of retrofitting solutions. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Cost (LCC) are combined by expressing environmental impacts in monetary values. A Pareto optimization is used to select the preferred strategies. The methodology is exemplified by a case study: the renovation of a representative housing block from the 1960s located in Madrid. Eight scenarios have been proposed, from the Business as Usual scenario (BAU), through Spanish Building Regulation requirements (for new buildings) up to the Passive House standard. Results show how current renovation strategies that are being applied in Madrid are far from being optimal solutions. The required additional investment, which is needed to obtain an overall performance improvement of the envelope compared with the common practice to date, is relatively low (8%) considering the obtained life cycle environmental and financial savings (43% and 45%, respectively).

Análisis del comportamiento en servicio de los puentes de fábrica ante las nuevas condiciones de explotación

Los puentes arco de fábrica representan una parte importante del inventario de puentes en España y en Europa. De aquí, la importancia cuantitativa de estas estructuras y el interés que representa tanto para las Administraciones, organismos públicos y privados como para la sociedad en general, mantener estos puentes en servicio. Para poder alargar su vida útil, aún más si cabe, se plantea imprescindible llevar a cabo una labor de conservación y mantenimiento adecuada. La importancia de la evaluación estructural de los puentes de fábrica se basa en la conveniencia de conocer el comportamiento estructural tanto en condiciones de servicio como en agotamiento. El comportamiento en Estado Límite Último ha sido estudiado en profundidad y como resultado, la seguridad frente a agotamiento ha quedado definida con cierta confianza. Sin embargo, el comportamiento en Estado Límite de Servicio no es tan conocido. Se considera necesaria una revisión del concepto de ELS en puentes arco de fábrica puesto que muchos de ellos, cumpliendo las comprobaciones establecidas para ELU, presentan daños asociados a las actuales condiciones de explotación existentes actuales. El presente trabajo se enmarca dentro de un proyecto que está llevando a cabo la UIC (Union Internationale de Chemins de Fer) desde 2004. El objetivo general del mismo es conocer el comportamiento de los puentes arco de fábrica y mejorar los métodos de evaluación, mantenimiento y reparación existentes. Con este estudio, se pretende contribuir a mejorar la caracterización del comportamiento en servicio de estas estructuras. Para ello se ha realizado un análisis del estado tensional de la bóveda y el relleno estudiando la influencia de la configuración geométrica de los puentes y las propiedades de los materiales que los componen. Entender el funcionamiento de estas estructuras y conocer sus peculiares características ha sido el paso previo al desarrollo del estudio. Para ello, se ha acudido al minucioso trabajo desarrollado por diversos autores, desde los primeros análisis mediante la línea de presiones hasta los actuales métodos basados en elementos finitos. En primer lugar, se ha realizado un estudio paramétrico de diferentes configuraciones geométricas. El objetivo es comprobar la influencia de las dimensiones absolutas y las relaciones existentes entre las mismas en el comportamiento en servicio de los puentes. A continuación, se ha estudiado la influencia de las propiedades mecánicas de los rellenos rígido y granular (modificando su módulo de deformabilidad) en el estado tensional de la bóveda y el propio relleno. Para las dos etapas anteriores se emplea un modelo simplificado de puente arco de fábrica. A continuación, se crea un modelo más completo del mismo, para estudiar la influencia de las propiedades mecánicas del substrato de cimentación en el comportamiento estructural en servicio de la estructura. El objetivo final de este trabajo fin de máster, es conocer el comportamiento en servicio de los puentes arco de fábrica, para poder establecer las variables que condicionan el mismo. El siguiente paso en este campo de estudio, consiste en fijar unos valores límite para las mismas. Como síntesis de las conclusiones obtenidas, se menciona que el comportamiento estructural de los puente arco de fábrica, en mayor o menor medida, está influenciado por su geometría y las propiedades de los rellenos y substrato de cimentación que forman parte del mismo. Masonry arch bridges represent an important part of the total bridges, both in Spain and Europe. For this reason, these structures are so important in terms of quantity. They play an essential role for public administration and people in general. In order to remain those bridges serviceable, suitable inspections and repairs are required. It is necessary to have knowledge of the bridge condition so that an assessment can be made with confidence. It is therefore necessary to check that bridges behave properly under Ultimate Limit State criterion and Serviceability Limit State criterion. ULS has been studied thoroughly and as result, requirements under collapse are well described. However, structural behaviour under conditions of serviceability is not well evaluated. Serviceability Limit State criterion should be redefined for masonry arch bridges assessment. This is because many bridges that fulfil SLS criterion have damages. The purpose of this work is to take part in the improvement of assessment under serviceability. A vault and fill structural behaviour analysis has been performed from two points of view: geometry of the bridge and materials’ properties. The starting point was learning about masonry arch bridges behaviour and their special features. For this task, a revision of several authors’ thorough study has been made, from the line of thrust analysis to the current finite element analysis. Firstly, a parametric study of typologies of bridge has been made. The aim is to know how vault and fill behaviour changes modifying both absolute dimensions and relation between them. In the next step, a study of both surface fill and backfill properties has been done. The aim is to know how vault and fill behaviour changes modifying Young’s modulus. The principal conclusion achieved along this work is that the structural behaviour of masonry bridges depends of the bridge geometry and its material properties.

Modelling of Topographic Irregularities for Seismic Site Response

Seismic evaluation methodology is applied to an existing viaduct in the south of Spain, near Granada, which is a medium seismicity region. The influence of both geology and topography in the spatial variability of ground motion are studied as well as seismic hazard analysis and ground motion characterization. Artificial hazard-consistent ground motion records are synthesised applying seismic hazard analysis and site effects are estimated through a diffraction study. Direct BEM is used to calculate the valley displacement response to vertically propagating SV waves and transfer functions are generated allowing the transformation of free field motion to motion at each support. A closed formulae is used to estimate these transfer function. Finally, the results obtained are compared.

Simplified Procedure for the Nonlinear Seismic Analysis of Bridges

The severe accidents suffered by bridges during recent earthquake show that more careful analysis are needed to guarantee their behaviour. In particular simplified non-linear analysis could be useful to bridge the gap between theoretical research and practical applications. This paper presents one of those simplified methods that can be applied for first designs or to retrofitting of groups of bridges.

Piezoelectric sensing and non-parametric statistical signal processing for health monitoring of hysteretic dampers used in seismic-resistant structures

The paper proposes a new application of non-parametric statistical processing of signals recorded from vibration tests for damage detection and evaluation on I-section steel segments. The steel segments investigated constitute the energy dissipating part of a new type of hysteretic damper that is used for passive control of buildings and civil engineering structures subjected to earthquake-type dynamic loadings. Two I-section steel segments with different levels of damage were instrumented with piezoceramic sensors and subjected to controlled white noise random vibrations. The signals recorded during the tests were processed using two non-parametric methods (the power spectral density method and the frequency response function method) that had never previously been applied to hysteretic dampers. The appropriateness of these methods for quantifying the level of damage on the I-shape steel segments is validated experimentally. Based on the results of the random vibrations, the paper proposes a new index that predicts the level of damage and the proximity of failure of the hysteretic damper

Seismic modelling and ava analysis of hidrocarbon traps

In this study, forward seismic modelling of four geological models with Hydrocarbon (HC) traps were performed by ray tracing method to produce synthetic seismogram of each model. The idea is to identify the Hydrocarbon Indicators (HCI‟s) such as bright spot, flat spot, dim spot and Bottom Simulating Reflector (BSR) in the synthethic seismogram. The modelling was performed in DISCO/FOCUS 5.0 seismic data processing programme. Strong positive and negative reflection amplitudes and some artifact reflection horizons were observed on produced seismograms due to rapid changes in subsurface velocity and geometry respectively Additionally, Amplitude-versus-angle (AVA) curves of each HCIs was calculated by the Crewes Zoeppritz Explorer programme. AVA curves show that how the reflection coefficients change with the density and the P and S wave velocities of each layer such as oil, gas, gas hydrate or water saturated sediments. Due to AVA curves, an increase in reflection amplitude with incident angle of seismic waves corresponds to an indicator of a hydrocarbon reservoir

Dynamic Response of Wind Turbines to Theoretical 3D Seismic Motions Taking into Account the Rotational Component

We study the dynamic response of a wind turbine structure subjected to theoretical seismic motions, taking into account the rotational component of ground shaking. Models are generated for a shallow moderate crustal earthquake in the Madrid Region (Spain). Synthetic translational and rotational time histories are computed using the Discrete Wavenumber Method, assuming a point source and a horizontal layered earth structure. These are used to analyze the dynamic response of a wind turbine, represented by a simple finite element model. Von Mises stress values at different heights of the tower are used to study the dynamical structural response to a set of synthetic ground motion time histories

Simplified computational method for non-linear seismic analysis of bridges

After the experience gained during the past years it seems clear that nonlinear analysis of bridges are very important to compute ductility demands and to localize potential hinges. This is specially true for irregular bridges in which it is not clear weather or not it is possible to use a linear computation followed by a correction using a behaviour factor. To simplify the numerical effort several approximate methods have been proposed. Among them, the so-called Dynamic Plastic Hinge Method in which an evolutionary shape function is used to reduce the structure to a single degree of freedom system seems to mantein a good balance between accuracy and simplicity. This paper presents results obtained in a parametric study conducted under the auspicies of PREC-8 european research program.

Seismic Hazard and Ground Motion Characterization at the Itoiz Dam (Northern Spain).

This paper presents a new hazard-consistent ground motion characterization of the Itoiz dam site, located in Northern Spain. Firstly, we propose a methodology with different approximation levels to the expected ground motion at the dam site. Secondly, we apply this methodology taking into account the particular characteristics of the site and of the dam. Hazard calculations were performed following the Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment method using a logic tree, which accounts for different seismic source zonings and different ground-motion attenuation relationships. The study was done in terms of peak ground acceleration and several spectral accelerations of periods coinciding with the fundamental vibration periods of the dam. In order to estimate these ground motions we consider two different dam conditions: when the dam is empty (T = 0.1 s) and when it is filled with water to its maximum capacity (T = 0.22 s). Additionally, seismic hazard analysis is done for two return periods: 975 years, related to the project earthquake, and 4,975 years, identified with an extreme event. Soil conditions were also taken into account at the site of the dam. Through the proposed methodology we deal with different forms of characterizing ground motion at the study site. In a first step, we obtain the uniform hazard response spectra for the two return periods. In a second step, a disaggregation analysis is done in order to obtain the controlling earthquakes that can affect the dam. Subsequently, we characterize the ground motion at the dam site in terms of specific response spectra for target motions defined by the expected values SA (T) of T = 0.1 and 0.22 s for the return periods of 975 and 4,975 years, respectively. Finally, synthetic acceleration time histories for earthquake events matching the controlling parameters are generated using the discrete wave-number method and subsequently analyzed. Because of the short relative distances between the controlling earthquakes and the dam site we considered finite sources in these computations. We conclude that directivity effects should be taken into account as an important variable in this kind of studies for ground motion characteristics.

Seismic vulnerability analysis of wide-beam buildings in Spain

A number of short-to-mid height RC buildings with wide beams have been constructed in moderate-seismicity areas of Spain. The seismic behavior in the direction of the wide beams appears to be deficient because of low lateral strength, low ductility of the wide beams, big strut compressive forces inside the column-beam connections, and unreliable contribution of the spandrel zones of the wide beams. In the orthogonal direction, the behavior is worse since only the joists and the façade beams contribute to the lateral resistance. The objective is to assess the seismic capability of these structures; further research will involve proposing retrofit strategies. The research approach consists of selecting a number of representative buildings and evaluating their vulnerability by code-type, push-over and dynamic analyses. The cooperation of the masonry infill walls is accounted for. The main conclusion is that the seismic behavior of these buildings is inadequate in most of the situations.

A damage model for seismic retrofitting of structures

Numerous damage models have been developed in order to analyse the seismic behavior. Among the different possibilities existing in the literature, it is very clear that models developed along the lines of Continuum Damage Mechanics are more consistent with the definition of damage like a phenomenon with mechanical consequences as they include explicitly the coupling between damage and mechanical behavior. On the other hand, for seismic processes, phenomena such as low cycle fatigue may have a pronounced effect on the overall behavior of the frames and, therefore, its consideration turns out to be very important. However, many of existing models evaluate the damage only as a function of the maximum amplitude of cyclic deformation without considering the number of cycles. In this paper, a generalization of the simplified model proposed by Flórez is made in order to include the low cycle fatigue. Such model employs in its formulation irreversible thermodynamics and internal state variable theory.

An evaluation of seismic hazard in La Hispaniola, after the 2010 Haiti earthquake

An evaluation of the seismic hazard in La Hispaniola Island has been carried out, as part of the cooperative project SISMO-HAITI, supported by the Technical University of Madrid (UPM) and developed by several Spanish Universities, the National Observatory of Environment and Vulnerability) ONEV of Haiti, and with contributions from the Puerto Rico Seismic Network (PRSN) and University Seismological Institute of Dominican Republic (ISU). The study was aimed at obtaining results suitable for seismic design purposes. It started with the elaboration of a seismic catalogue for the Hispaniola Island, requiring an exhaustive revision of data reported by more than 20 seismic agencies, apart from these from the PRSN and ISU. The final catalogue contains 96 historical earthquakes and 1690 instrumental events, and it was homogenized to moment magnitude, Mw. Seismotectonic models proposed for the region were revised and a new regional zonation was proposed, taking into account geological andtectonic data, seismicity, focal mechanisms, and GPS observations. In parallel, attenuation models for subduction and crustal zones were revised in previous projects and the most suitable for the Caribbean plate were selected. Then, a seismic hazard analysis was developed in terms of peak ground acceleration, PGA, and spectral accelerations, SA (T), for periods of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1 and 2s, using the Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment (PSHA) methodology. As a result, different hazard maps were obtained for the quoted parameters, together with Uniform Hazard Spectra for Port au Prince and the main cities in the country. Hazard deaggregation was also carried out in these towns, for the target motion given by the PGA and SA (1s) obtained for return periods of 475, 975 and 2475 years. Therefore, the controlling earthquakes for short- and long-period target motions were derived. This study was started a few months after the 2010 earthquake, as a response to an aid request from the Haitian government to the UPM, and the results are available for the definition of the first building code in Haiti.

Uncertainty Analysis in New Seismic Hazard Study of Spain Aimed at the Revision of the Spanish Building Code.

In this paper we present a global overview of the recent study carried out in Spain for the new hazard map, which final goal is the revision of the Building Code in our country (NCSE-02). The study was carried our for a working group joining experts from The Instituto Geografico Nacional (IGN) and the Technical University of Madrid (UPM) , being the different phases of the work supervised by an expert Committee integrated by national experts from public institutions involved in subject of seismic hazard. The PSHA method (Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment) has been followed, quantifying the epistemic uncertainties through a logic tree and the aleatory ones linked to variability of parameters by means of probability density functions and Monte Carlo simulations. In a first phase, the inputs have been prepared, which essentially are: 1) a project catalogue update and homogenization at Mw 2) proposal of zoning models and source characterization 3) calibration of Ground Motion Prediction Equations (GMPE’s) with actual data and development of a local model with data collected in Spain for Mw < 5.5. In a second phase, a sensitivity analysis of the different input options on hazard results has been carried out in order to have criteria for defining the branches of the logic tree and their weights. Finally, the hazard estimation was done with the logic tree shown in figure 1, including nodes for quantifying uncertainties corresponding to: 1) method for estimation of hazard (zoning and zoneless); 2) zoning models, 3) GMPE combinations used and 4) regression method for estimation of source parameters. In addition, the aleatory uncertainties corresponding to the magnitude of the events, recurrence parameters and maximum magnitude for each zone have been also considered including probability density functions and Monte Carlo simulations The main conclusions of the study are presented here, together with the obtained results in terms of PGA and other spectral accelerations SA (T) for return periods of 475, 975 and 2475 years. The map of the coefficient of variation (COV) are also represented to give an idea of the zones where the dispersion among results are the highest and the zones where the results are robust.