Cover cracking of reinforced concrete due to rebar corrosión induced by chloride penetration

Este artículo estudia el proceso de fisuración del hormigón por corrosión de la armadura. Se presenta un modelo de transporte de cloruros en el hormigón, que contempla la no-linealidad de los coeficientes de difusión, las isotermas de absorción y el fenómeno de convección. A partir de los resultados de penetración de cloruros, se establece la corrosión de la armadura con la consiguiente expansión radial. La fisuración del hormigón se estudia con un modelo de fisura embebida. Los dos modelos (iniciación y propagación) se incorporan en un programa de elementos finitos. El modelo se contrasta con resultados experimentales, obteniéndose un buen ajuste. Una de las dificultades es establecer el umbral de concentración de cloruros que da lugar al inicio de la corrosión de la armadura.This paper is focused on the chloride-induced corrosion of the rebar in RC. A comprehensive model for the chloride ingress into concrete is presented, with special attention to non-linear diffusion coefficients, chloride binding isotherms and convection phenomena. Based on the results of chloride diffusion, subsequent active corrosion is assumed and the radial expansion of the corroded reinforcement reproduced. For cracking simulation, the Strong Discontinuity Approach is applied. Both models (initiation and propagation corrosion stages) are incorporated in the same finite element program and chained. Comparisons with experimental results are carried out, with reasonably good agreements being obtained, especially for cracking patterns. Major limitations refer to difficulties to establish precise levels of basic data such as the chloride ion content at concrete surface, the chloride threshold concentration that triggers active corrosion, the rate of oxide production or the rust mechanical properties.

Effects of traffic loads on reinforced concrete railroad culverts

In the context of the present conference paper culverts are defined as an opening or conduit passing through an embankment usually for the purpose of conveying water or providing safe pedestrian and animal crossings under rail infrastructure. The clear opening of culverts may reach values of up to 12m however, values around 3m are encountered much more frequently. Depending on the topography, the number of culverts is about 10 times that of bridges. In spite of this, their dynamic behavior has received far less attention than that of bridges. The fundamental frequency of culverts is considerably higher than that of bridges even in the case of short span bridges. As the operational speed of modern high-speed passenger rail systems rises, higher frequencies are excited and thus more energy is encountered in frequency bands where the fundamental frequency of box culverts is located. Many research efforts have been spent on the subject of ballast instability due to bridge resonance, since it was first observed when high-speed trains were introduced to the Paris/Lyon rail line. To prevent this phenomenon from occurring, design codes establish a limit value for the vertical deck acceleration. Obviously one needs some sort of numerical model in order to estimate this acceleration level and at that point things get quite complicated. Not only acceleration but also displacement values are of interest e.g. to estimate the impact factor. According to design manuals the structural design should consider the depth of cover, trench width and condition, bedding type, backfill material, and compaction. The same applies to the numerical model however, the question is: What type of model is appropriate for this job? A 3D model including the embankment and an important part of the soil underneath the culvert is computationally very expensive and hard to justify taking into account the associated costs. Consequently, there is a clear need for simplified models and design rules in order to achieve reasonable costs. This paper will describe the results obtained from a 2D finite element model which has been calibrated by means of a 3D model and experimental data obtained at culverts that belong to the high-speed railway line that links the two towns of Segovia and Valladolid in Spain

Shake-table tests of a reinforced concrete frame designed following modern codes: seismic performance and damage evaluation

This paper presents shake-table tests conducted on a two-fifths-scale reinforced concrete frame representing a conventional construction design under current building code provisions in the Mediterranean area. The structure was subjected to a sequence of dynamic tests including free vibrations and four seismic simulations in which a historical ground motion record was scaled to levels of increasing intensity until collapse. Each seismic simulation was associated with a different level of seismic hazard, representing very frequent, frequent, rare and very rare earthquakes. The structure remained basically undamaged and within the inter-story drift limits of the "immediate occupancy" performance level for the very frequent and frequent earthquakes. For the rare earthquake, the specimen sustained significant damage with chord rotations of up to 28% of its ultimate capacity and approached the upper bound limit of inter-story drift associated with "life safety". The specimen collapsed at the beginning of the "very rare" seismic simulation. Besides summarizing the experimental program, this paper evaluates the damage quantitatively at the global and local levels in terms of chord rotation and other damage indexes, together with the energy dissipation demands for each level of seismic hazard. Further, the ratios of column-to-beam moment capacity recommended by Eurocode 8 and ACI-318 to guarantee the formation of a strong column-weak beam mechanism are examined.

Seismic performance and damage evaluation of a reinforced concrete frame with hysteretic dampers through shake-table tests

Passive energy dissipation devices are increasingly implemented in frame structures to improve their performance under seismic loading. Most guidelines for designing this type of system retain the requirements applicable to frames without dampers, and this hinders taking full advantage of the benefits of implementing dampers. Further, assessing the extent of damage suffered by the frame and by the dampers for different levels of seismic hazard is of paramount importance in the framework of performance-based design. This paper presents an experimental investigation whose objectives are to provide empirical data on the response of reinforced concrete (RC) frames equipped with hysteretic dampers (dynamic response and damage) and to evaluate the need for the frame to form a strong column-weak beam mechanism and dissipate large amounts of plastic strain energy. To this end, shake-table tests were conducted on a 2/5-scale RC frame with hysteretic dampers. The frame was designed only for gravitational loads. The dampers provided lateral strength and stiffness, respectively, three and 12 times greater than those of the frame. The test structure was subjected to a sequence of seismic simulations that represented different levels of seismic hazard. The RC frame showed a performance level of "immediate occupancy", with maximum rotation demands below 20% of the ultimate capacity. The dampers dissipated most of the energy input by the earthquake. It is shown that combining hysteretic dampers with flexible reinforced concrete frames leads to structures with improved seismic performance and that requirements of conventional RC frames (without dampers) can be relieved.

Inelastic torsional seismic response of nominally symmetric reinforced concrete frame structures: shaking table tests

This paper discusses the torsional response of a scaled reinforced concrete frame structure subjected to several uniaxial shaking table tests. The tested structure is nominally symmetric in the direction of shaking and exhibits torsion attributable to non-uniform yielding of structural components and uncertainties in the building process. Asymmetric behavior is analyzed in terms of displacement, strain in reinforcing bars, energy dissipated at plastic hinges, and damage at section and frame levels. The results show that for low levels of seismic hazard, for which the structure is expected to perform basically within the elastic range, the accidental eccentricity is not a concern for the health of the structure, but it significantly increases the lateral displacement demand in the frames (about 30%) and this might cause significant damage to non-structural components. For high levels of seismic hazard the effects of accidental torsion become less important. These results underline the need to consider accidental eccentricity in evaluating the performance of a structure for very frequent or frequent earthquakes, and suggest that consideration of torsion may be neglected for performance levels associated with rare or very rare earthquakes.

Modified Gutenberg-Richter coefficient for damage evaluation in reinforced concrete structures subjected to seismic simulations on a shaking table

This paper presents analysis and discussion of the b- and ib-values calculated from the acoustic emission (AE) signals recorded during dynamic shake-table tests conducted on a reinforced concrete (RC) frame subjected to several uniaxial seismic simulations of increasing intensity until collapse. The intensity of shaking was controlled by the peak acceleration applied to the shake-table in each seismic simulation, and it ranged from 0.08 to 0.47 times the acceleration of gravity. The numerous spurious signals not related to concrete damage that inevitably contaminate AE measurements obtained from complex dynamic shake-table tests were properly filtered with an RMS filter and the use of guard sensors. Comparing the b- and ib-values calculated through the tests with the actual level of macro-cracking and damage observed during testing, it was concluded that the limit value of 0.05 proposed in previous research to determine the onset of macro-cracks should be revised in the case of earthquake-type dynamic loading. Finally, the b- and ibvalues were compared with the damage endured by the RC frame evaluated both visually and quantitatively in terms of the inter-story drift index.

Polyolefin fiber-reinforced concrete enhanced with steel-hooked fibers in low proportions

Over the past few years, polyolefin fiber reinforced self-compacting concrete has shown high performance in both fresh and hardened state. Its fracture behavior for small deformations could be enhanced with a small amount of steel-hooked fibers, obtaining a hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete well suited for structural use. Four types of conventional fiber-reinforced concrete with steel and polyolefin fibers were produced on the basis of the same self-compacting concrete also manufactured as reference. These concrete mixtures were manufactured separately with the same fiber contents being subsequently used for two more hybrid mixtures. Fracture properties, in addition to fresh and mechanical properties, were assessed. The research showed both synergies (with the two types of fibers working together in the fracture processes) and an improvement of the orientation and distribution of the fibers on the fracture surface

A methodology to calibrate structural finite element models for reinforced concrete structures subject to blast loads

Civil buildings are not specifically designed to support blast loads, but it is important to take into account these potential scenarios because of their catastrophic effects, on persons and structures. A practical way to consider explosions on reinforced concrete structures is necessary. With this objective we propose a methodology to evaluate blast loads on large concrete buildings, using LS-DYNA code for calculation, with Lagrangian finite elements and explicit time integration. The methodology has three steps. First, individual structural elements of the building like columns and slabs are studied, using continuum 3D elements models subjected to blast loads. In these models reinforced concrete is represented with high precision, using advanced material models such as CSCM_CONCRETE model, and segregated rebars constrained within the continuum mesh. Regrettably this approach cannot be used for large structures because of its excessive computational cost. Second, models based on structural elements are developed, using shells and beam elements. In these models concrete is represented using CONCRETE_EC2 model and segregated rebars with offset formulation, being calibrated with continuum elements models from step one to obtain the same structural response: displacement, velocity, acceleration, damage and erosion. Third, models basedon structural elements are used to develop large models of complete buildings. They are used to study the global response of buildings subjected to blast loads and progressive collapse. This article carries out different techniques needed to calibrate properly the models based on structural elements, using shells and beam elements, in order to provide results of sufficient accuracy that can be used with moderate computational cost.

Polyolefin fibre-reinforced concrete : from material behaviour to numerical and design considerations

La presente Tesis proporciona una gran cantidad de información con respecto al uso de un nuevo y avanzado material polimérico (con base de poliolefina) especialmente adecuada para ser usada en forma de fibras como adición en el hormigón. Se han empleado fibras de aproximadamente 1 mm de diámetro, longitudes entre 48 y 60 mm y una superficie corrugada. Las prometedoras propiedades de este material (baja densidad, bajo coste, buen comportamiento resistente y gran estabilidad química) justifican el interés en desarrollar el esfuerzo de investigación requerido para demostrar las ventajas de su uso en aplicaciones prácticas. La mayor parte de la investigación se ha realizado usando hormigón autocompactante como matriz, ya que este material es óptimo para el relleno de los encofrados del hormigón, aunque también se ha empleado hormigón normal vibrado con el fin de comparar algunas propiedades. Además, el importante desarrollo del hormigón reforzado con fibras en los últimos años, tanto en investigación como en aplicaciones prácticas, también es muestra del gran interés que los resultados y consideraciones de diseño que esta Tesis pueden tener. El material compuesto resultante, Hormigón Reforzado con Fibras de Poliolefina (HRFP o PFRC por sus siglas inglesas) ha sido exhaustivamente ensayado y estudiado en muchos aspectos. Los resultados permiten establecer cómo conseguidos los objetivos buscados: -Se han cuantificado las propiedades mecánicas del PFRC con el fin de demostrar su buen comportamiento en la fase fisurada de elementos estructurales sometidos a tensiones de tracción. -Contrastar los resultados obtenidos con las bases propuestas en la normativa existente y evaluar las posibilidades para el uso del PFRC con fin estructural para sustituir el armado tradicional con barras de acero corrugado para determinadas aplicaciones. -Se han desarrollado herramientas de cálculo con el fin de evaluar la capacidad del PFRC para sustituir al hormigón armado con las barras habituales de acero. -En base a la gran cantidad de ensayos experimentales y a alguna aplicación real en la construcción, se han podido establecer recomendaciones y consejos de diseño para que elementos de este material puedan ser proyectados y construidos con total fiabilidad. Se presentan, además, resultados prometedores en una nueva línea de trabajo en el campo del hormigón reforzado con fibras combinando dos tipologías de fibras. Se combinaron fibras de poliolefina con fibras de acero como refuerzo del mismo hormigón autocompactante detectándose sinergias que podrían ser la base del uso futuro de esta tecnología de hormigón. This thesis provides a significant amount of information on the use of a new advanced polymer (polyolefin-based) especially suitable in the form of fibres to be added to concrete. At the time of writing, there is a noteworthy lack of research and knowledge about use as a randomly distributed element to reinforce concrete. Fibres with an approximate 1 mm diameter, length of 48-60 mm, an embossed surface and improved mechanical properties are employed. The promising properties of the polyolefin material (low density, inexpensive, and with good strength behaviour and high chemical stability) justify the research effort involved and demonstrate the advantages for practical purposes. While most of the research has used self-compacting concrete, given that this type of matrix material is optimum in filling the concrete formwork, for comparison purposes standard vibration compacted mixes have also been used. In addition, the interest in fibre-reinforced concrete technology, in both research and application, support the significant interest in the results and considerations provided by the thesis. The resulting composite material, polyolefin fibre reinforced concrete (PFRC) has been extensively tested and studied. The results have allowed the following objectives to be met: -Assessment of the mechanical properties of PFRC in order to demonstrate the good performance in the post-cracking strength for structural elements subjected to tensile stresses. -- Assessment of the results in contrast with the existing structural codes, regulations and test methods. The evaluation of the potential of PFRC to meet the requirements and replace traditional steel-bar reinforcement applications. -Development of numerical tools designed to evaluate the capability of PFRC to substitute, either partially or totally, standard steel reinforcing bars either alone or in conjunction with steel fibres. -Provision, based on the large amount of experimental work and real applications, of a series of guidelines and recommendations for the practical and reliable design and use of PFRC. Furthermore, the thesis also reports promising results about an innovative line in the field of fibre-reinforced concrete: the design of a fibre cocktail to reinforce the concrete by using two types of fibres simultaneously. Polyolefin fibres were combined with steel fibres in self-compacting concrete, identifying synergies that could serve as the base in the future use of fibre-reinforced concrete technology.

Analysis of Combined Bending and Punching Tests of Reinforced Concrete Slabs within IMPACT III Project

The paper reports on a collaborative effort between the Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (ENSI) and their consultants Principia and Stangenberg. As part of the IMPACT III project, reduced scale impact tests of reinforced concrete structures were carried out. The simulation of test X3 is presented here and the numerical results are compared with those obtained in the test, carried out in August 2013. The general object is to improve the safety of nuclear facilities and, more specifically, to demonstrate the capabilities of current simulation techniques to reproduce the behaviour of a reinforced concrete structure impacted by a soft missile. The missile is a steel tube with a mass of 50 kg and travelling at 140 m/s. The target is a 250 mm thick, 2,1 m by 2,1 m reinforced concrete wall, held in a stiff supporting frame. The reinforcement includes both longitudinal and transverse rebars. Calculations were carried out before and after the test with Abaqus (Principia) and SOFiSTiK (Stangenberg). In the Abaqus simulation the concrete is modelled using solid elements and a damaged plasticity formulation, the rebars with embedded beam elements, and the missile with shell elements. In SOFiSTiK the target is modelled with non-linear, layered shell elements for the reinforcement on both sides; non-linear shear deformations of shell/plate elements are approximately included. The results generally indicate a good agreement between calculations and measurements.

Parametric analysis on bridge reinforced concrete elevated pile-cap foundations

Current design practices recommend to comply with the capacity protection principle, which pays special attention to ensuring an elastic response of the foundations under ground motion events. However, in cases such as elevated reinforced concrete (RC) pile-cap foundation typologies, this design criterion may lead to conservative designs, with excessively high construction costs. Reinforced concrete elevated pile-cap foundations is a system formed by a group of partially embedded piles connected through an aboveground stayed cap and embedded in soil. In the cases when they are subjected to ground motions, the piles suffer large bending moments that make it difficult to maintain their behavior within the elastic range of deformations. Aiming to make an in-depth analysis of the nonlinear behavior of elevated pile-cap foundations, a cyclic loading test was performed on a concrete 2x3 pile configuration specimen of elevated pile-cap foundation. Two results of this test, the failure mechanism and the ductile behavior, were used for the calibration of a numerical model built in OpenSees framework, by using a pushover analysis. The calibration of the numerical model enabled an in-depth study of the seismic nonlinear response of this kind of foundations. A parametric analysis was carried for this purpose, aiming to study how sensitive RC elevated pile-cap foundations are, when subjected to variations in the diameter of piles, reinforcement ratios, external loads, soil density or multilayer configurations. This analysis provided a set of ductility factors that can be used as a reference for design practices and which correspond to each of the cases analyzed.

Application of PZT and FBG impedance sensors for structural health monitoring of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with FRP composite materials

Esta Tesis tiene como objetivo principal el desarrollo de métodos de identificación del daño que sean robustos y fiables, enfocados a sistemas estructurales experimentales, fundamentalmente a las estructuras de hormigón armado reforzadas externamente con bandas fibras de polímeros reforzados (FRP). El modo de fallo de este tipo de sistema estructural es crítico, pues generalmente es debido a un despegue repentino y frágil de la banda del refuerzo FRP originado en grietas intermedias causadas por la flexión. La detección de este despegue en su fase inicial es fundamental para prevenir fallos futuros, que pueden ser catastróficos. Inicialmente, se lleva a cabo una revisión del método de la Impedancia Electro-Mecánica (EMI), de cara a exponer sus capacidades para la detección de daño. Una vez la tecnología apropiada es seleccionada, lo que incluye un analizador de impedancias así como novedosos sensores PZT para monitorización inteligente, se ha diseñado un procedimiento automático basado en los registros de impedancias de distintas estructuras de laboratorio. Basándonos en el hecho de que las mediciones de impedancias son posibles gracias a una colocación adecuada de una red de sensores PZT, la estimación de la presencia de daño se realiza analizando los resultados de distintos indicadores de daño obtenidos de la literatura. Para que este proceso sea automático y que no sean necesarios conocimientos previos sobre el método EMI para realizar un experimento, se ha diseñado e implementado un Interfaz Gráfico de Usuario, transformando la medición de impedancias en un proceso fácil e intuitivo. Se evalúa entonces el daño a través de los correspondientes índices de daño, intentando estimar no sólo su severidad, sino también su localización aproximada. El desarrollo de estos experimentos en cualquier estructura genera grandes cantidades de datos que han de ser procesados, y algunas veces los índices de daño no son suficientes para una evaluación completa de la integridad de una estructura. En la mayoría de los casos se pueden encontrar patrones de daño en los datos, pero no se tiene información a priori del estado de la estructura. En este punto, se ha hecho una importante investigación en técnicas de reconocimiento de patrones particularmente en aprendizaje no supervisado, encontrando aplicaciones interesantes en el campo de la medicina. De ahí surge una idea creativa e innovadora: detectar y seguir la evolución del daño en distintas estructuras como si se tratase de un cáncer propagándose por el cuerpo humano. En ese sentido, las lecturas de impedancias se emplean como información intrínseca de la salud de la propia estructura, de forma que se pueden aplicar las mismas técnicas que las empleadas en la investigación del cáncer. En este caso, se ha aplicado un algoritmo de clasificación jerárquica dado que ilustra además la clasificación de los datos de forma gráfica, incluyendo información cualitativa y cuantitativa sobre el daño. Se ha investigado la efectividad de este procedimiento a través de tres estructuras de laboratorio, como son una viga de aluminio, una unión atornillada de aluminio y un bloque de hormigón reforzado con FRP. La primera ayuda a mostrar la efectividad del método en sencillos escenarios de daño simple y múltiple, de forma que las conclusiones extraídas se aplican sobre los otros dos, diseñados para simular condiciones de despegue en distintas estructuras. Demostrada la efectividad del método de clasificación jerárquica de lecturas de impedancias, se aplica el procedimiento sobre las estructuras de hormigón armado reforzadas con bandas de FRP objeto de esta tesis, detectando y clasificando cada estado de daño. Finalmente, y como alternativa al anterior procedimiento, se propone un método para la monitorización continua de la interfase FRP-Hormigón, a través de una red de sensores FBG permanentemente instalados en dicha interfase. De esta forma, se obtienen medidas de deformación de la interfase en condiciones de carga continua, para ser implementadas en un modelo de optimización multiobjetivo, cuya solución se haya por medio de una expansión multiobjetivo del método Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). La fiabilidad de este último método de detección se investiga a través de sendos ejemplos tanto numéricos como experimentales. ABSTRACT This thesis aims to develop robust and reliable damage identification methods focused on experimental structural systems, in particular Reinforced Concrete (RC) structures externally strengthened with Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) strips. The failure mode of this type of structural system is critical, since it is usually due to sudden and brittle debonding of the FRP reinforcement originating from intermediate flexural cracks. Detection of the debonding in its initial stage is essential thus to prevent future failure, which might be catastrophic. Initially, a revision of the Electro-Mechanical Impedance (EMI) method is carried out, in order to expose its capabilities for local damage detection. Once the appropriate technology is selected, which includes impedance analyzer as well as novel PZT sensors for smart monitoring, an automated procedure has been design based on the impedance signatures of several lab-scale structures. On the basis that capturing impedance measurements is possible thanks to an adequately deployed PZT sensor network, the estimation of damage presence is done by analyzing the results of different damage indices obtained from the literature. In order to make this process automatic so that it is not necessary a priori knowledge of the EMI method to carry out an experimental test, a Graphical User Interface has been designed, turning the impedance measurements into an easy and intuitive procedure. Damage is then assessed through the analysis of the corresponding damage indices, trying to estimate not only the damage severity, but also its approximate location. The development of these tests on any kind of structure generates large amounts of data to be processed, and sometimes the information provided by damage indices is not enough to achieve a complete analysis of the structural health condition. In most of the cases, some damage patterns can be found in the data, but none a priori knowledge of the health condition is given for any structure. At this point, an important research on pattern recognition techniques has been carried out, particularly on unsupervised learning techniques, finding interesting applications in the medicine field. From this investigation, a creative and innovative idea arose: to detect and track the evolution of damage in different structures, as if it were a cancer propagating through a human body. In that sense, the impedance signatures are used to give intrinsic information of the health condition of the structure, so that the same clustering algorithms applied in the cancer research can be applied to the problem addressed in this dissertation. Hierarchical clustering is then applied since it also provides a graphical display of the clustered data, including quantitative and qualitative information about damage. The performance of this approach is firstly investigated using three lab-scale structures, such as a simple aluminium beam, a bolt-jointed aluminium beam and an FRP-strengthened concrete specimen. The first one shows the performance of the method on simple single and multiple damage scenarios, so that the first conclusions can be extracted and applied to the other two experimental tests, which are designed to simulate a debonding condition on different structures. Once the performance of the impedance-based hierarchical clustering method is proven to be successful, it is then applied to the structural system studied in this dissertation, the RC structures externally strengthened with FRP strips, where the debonding failure in the interface between the FRP and the concrete is successfully detected and classified, proving thus the feasibility of this method. Finally, as an alternative to the previous approach, a continuous monitoring procedure of the FRP-Concrete interface is proposed, based on an FBGsensors Network permanently deployed within that interface. In this way, strain measurements can be obtained under controlled loading conditions, and then they are used in order to implement a multi-objective model updating method solved by a multi-objective expansion of the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) method. The feasibility of this last proposal is investigated and successfully proven on both numerical and experimental RC beams strengthened with FRP.

Analysis, reliability and optimization of reinforced concrete 2-D structures

In this paper a consistent analysis of reinforced concrete (RC) two-dimensional (2-D) structures,namely slab structures subjected to in-plane and out-plane forces, is presented. By using this method of analysis the well established methodology for dimensioning and verifying RC sections of beam structures is extended to 2-D structures. The validity of the proposed analysis results is checked by comparing them with some published experimental test results. Several examples show some of these proposed analysis features, such as the influence of the reinforcement layout on the service and ultimate behavior of a slab structure and the non straightforward problem of the optimal dimension at a slab point subjected to several loading cases. Also, in these examples, the method applications to design situations as multiple steel families and non orthogonal reinforcement layout are commented.

Use of Headed Reinforcement Bars in Contruction. A Theoretical Approach to Determine the Dimensions of Anchorage Plates and Experimental Tests on Knee Joints Subjected to a Closing Moment

In order to reduce costs and time while improving quality, durability and sustainability in structural concrete constructions, a widely used material nowadays, special care must be taken in some crucial phases of the project and execution, including the structure design and calculation, the dosage, dumping and curing of concrete: another important aspect is the proper design and execution of assembly plans and construction details. The framework, a name designating the whole reinforcement bars cage already assembled as shown in the drawings, can be made up of several components and implies higher or lower industrialization degree. The framework costs constitute about one third of the price per cubic meter placed in concrete works. The best solutions from all points of view are clearly those involving an easier processing to achieve the same goal, and consequently carrying a high degree of industrialization, meaning quality and safety in the work. This thesis aims to provide an indepth analysis of a relatively new type of anchoring by plate known as headed reinforcement bars, which can potentially replace standard or L-shaped hooks, improving the cleaning of construction details and enabling a faster, more flexible, and therefore a more economical assembly. A literature review on the topic and an overview of typical applications is provided, followed by some examples of specific applications in real projects. Since a strict theoretical formulation used to provide the design plate dimensions has not yet been put forward, an equation is proposed for the side-face blowout strength of the anchorage, based on the capacity of concrete to carry concentrated loads in cases in which no transverse reinforcement is provided. The correlation of the calculated ultimate load with experimental results available in the literature is given. Besides, the proposed formulation can be expanded to cases in which a certain development length is available: using a software for nonlinear finite element analysis oriented to the study of reinforced concrete, numerical tests on the bond-bearing interaction are performed. The thesis ends with a testing of eight corner joints subjected to a closing moment, held in the Structures Laboratory of the Polytechnic University of Madrid, aiming to check whether the design of such plates as stated is adequate for these elements and whether an element with plate-anchored reinforcement is equivalent to one with a traditional construction detail.

Corrosion behaviour of new duplex stainless steel reinforcements embedded in chloride contaminated concrete

The use of reinforcing stainless steels (SS) in concrete have proved to be one of the most effective methods to guarantee the passivity of reinforced concrete structures exposed to chloride contaminated environment. The present research studies the corrosion behaviour of a new duplex SS reinforcements with low nickel content (LND) (more economicaly compatible) is compared with the conventional austenitic AISI 304 SS and duplex AISI 2304 SS. Corrosion behaviour of ribbed SS reinforcements was studied in mortars with chloride content (0, 0.4, 2 and 4% Cl ⎯ ) using linear polarization resistance and potentiostatic pulses technique, Ecorr and Rp values were monitored over the exposure time. The obtained icorr data for the new duplex stainless steel LND no afforded passivity breakdown after one year exposure