Soporte de redes activas para un servicio integrado de multipunto fiable con control de congestión

Las limitaciones de las tecnologías de red actuales, identificadas en la Agencia de Proyectos de Investigación Avanzados para la Defensa (DARPA) durante 1995, han originado recientemente una propuesta de modelo de red denominado Redes Activas. En este modelo, los nodos proporcionan un entorno de ejecución sobre el que se ejecuta el código asociado a cada paquete. El objetivo es disponer de una tecnología de red que permita que nuevos servicios de red sean desarrollados e instalados rápidamente sin modificar los nodos de la red. Un servicio de red que se puede beneficiar de esta tecnología es la transmisión de datos en multipunto con diferentes grados fiabilidad. Las propuestas actuales de servicios de multipunto fiable proporcionan una solución específica para cada clase de aplicaciones, y los protocolos existentes extremo a extremo sufren de limitaciones técnicas relacionadas con una fiabilidad limitada, y con la ausencia de mecanismos de control de congestión efectivos. Esta tesis realiza propuestas originales conducentes a solucionar parte de las limitaciones actuales en el ámbito de Redes Activas y multipunto fiable con control de congestión. En primer lugar, se especificará un servicio genérico de multipunto fiable que, basándose en los requisitos de una serie de aplicaciones consideradas relevantes, proporcione diferentes clases de sesiones y grados de fiabilidad. Partiendo de la definición del servicio genérico especificado, se diseñará un protocolo de comunicaciones sobre la tecnología de Redes Activas que proporcione dicho servicio. El protocolo diseñado estará dotado de un mecanismo de control de congestión para que la fuente ajuste dinámicamente el tráfico inyectado a las condiciones de carga de la red. En esta tesis se pretende también profundizar en el estudio y análisis de la tecnología de Redes Activas, experimentando con dicha tecnología para proporcionar una realimentación a sus diseñadores. Dicha experimentación se realizará en tres ámbitos: el de los servicios y protocolos que puede soportar, el del modelo y arquitectura de las Redes Activas y el de las plataformas de ejecución disponibles. Como aportación adicional de este trabajo, se validarán los objetivos anteriores mediante una implementación piloto de las entidades de protocolo y de su interfaz de servicio sobre uno de los entornos de ejecución disponibles. Abstract The limitations of current networking technologies identified in the Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA) along 1995 have led to a recent proposal of a new network model called Active Networks. In this model, the nodes provide an execution environment over which the code used to process each packet is executed. The objective is a network technology that allows the fast design and deployment of new network services without requiring the modification of the network nodes. One network service that could benefit from this technology is the transmission of multicast data with different types of loss tolerance. The current proposals for reliable multicast services provide specific solutions for each application class, and existing end-to-end protocols suffer from technical drawbacks related to limited reliability and lack of an effective congestion control mechanism. This thesis contains original proposals that aim to solve part of the current drawbacks in the scope of Active Networks and reliable multicast with congestion control. Firstly, a generic reliable multicast network service will be specified. This service will be designed from the requirements of a relevant set of applications, and will provide different session classes and different types of reliability. Then, a network protocol based on Active Network technology will be designed such that it provides the specified network service. This protocol will incorporate a congestion control mechanism capable of performing an automatic adjustment of the traffic injected by the source to the available network capacity. This thesis will also contribute to a deeper study and analysis of Active Network technology, by experimenting with the technology in order to provide feedback to its designers. This experimentation will be done attending to three different scopes: support of Active Network for services and protocols, Active Network model and architecture, and currently available Active Network execution environments. As an additional contribution of this work, the previous objectives will be validated through a prototype implementation of the protocol entities and the service interface based on one of the current execution environments.

Modelling the Impact of Built Environment, Geographical Scales and Latent Constructs On Individual Travel Behaviour

La relación entre la estructura urbana y la movilidad ha sido estudiada desde hace más de 70 años. El entorno urbano incluye múltiples dimensiones como por ejemplo: la estructura urbana, los usos de suelo, la distribución de instalaciones diversas (comercios, escuelas y zonas de restauración, parking, etc.). Al realizar una revisión de la literatura existente en este contexto, se encuentran distintos análisis, metodologías, escalas geográficas y dimensiones, tanto de la movilidad como de la estructura urbana. En este sentido, se trata de una relación muy estudiada pero muy compleja, sobre la que no existe hasta el momento un consenso sobre qué dimensión del entorno urbano influye sobre qué dimensión de la movilidad, y cuál es la manera apropiada de representar esta relación. Con el propósito de contestar estas preguntas investigación, la presente tesis tiene los siguientes objetivos generales: (1) Contribuir al mejor entendimiento de la compleja relación estructura urbana y movilidad. y (2) Entender el rol de los atributos latentes en la relación entorno urbano y movilidad. El objetivo específico de la tesis es analizar la influencia del entorno urbano sobre dos dimensiones de la movilidad: número de viajes y tipo de tour. Vista la complejidad de la relación entorno urbano y movilidad, se pretende contribuir al mejor entendimiento de la relación a través de la utilización de 3 escalas geográficas de las variables y del análisis de la influencia de efectos inobservados en la movilidad. Para el análisis se utiliza una base de datos conformada por tres tipos de datos: (1) Una encuesta de movilidad realizada durante los años 2006 y 2007. Se obtuvo un total de 943 encuestas, en 3 barrios de Madrid: Chamberí, Pozuelo y Algete. (2) Información municipal del Instituto Nacional de Estadística: dicha información se encuentra enlazada con los orígenes y destinos de los viajes recogidos en la encuesta. Y (3) Información georeferenciada en Arc-GIS de los hogares participantes en la encuesta: la base de datos contiene información respecto a la estructura de las calles, localización de escuelas, parking, centros médicos y lugares de restauración. Se analizó la correlación entre e intra-grupos y se modelizaron 4 casos de atributos bajo la estructura ordinal logit. Posteriormente se evalúa la auto-selección a través de la estimación conjunta de las elecciones de tipo de barrio y número de viajes. La elección del tipo de barrio consta de 3 alternativas: CBD, Urban y Suburban, según la zona de residencia recogida en las encuestas. Mientras que la elección del número de viajes consta de 4 categorías ordinales: 0 viajes, 1-2 viajes, 3-4 viajes y 5 o más viajes. A partir de la mejor especificación del modelo ordinal logit. Se desarrolló un modelo joint mixed-ordinal conjunto. Los resultados indican que las variables exógenas requieren un análisis exhaustivo de correlaciones con el fin de evitar resultados sesgados. ha determinado que es importante medir los atributos del BE donde se realiza el viaje, pero también la información municipal es muy explicativa de la movilidad individual. Por tanto, la percepción de las zonas de destino a nivel municipal es considerada importante. En el contexto de la Auto-selección (self-selection) es importante modelizar conjuntamente las decisiones. La Auto-selección existe, puesto que los parámetros estimados conjuntamente son significativos. Sin embargo, sólo ciertos atributos del entorno urbano son igualmente importantes sobre la elección de la zona de residencia y frecuencia de viajes. Para analizar la Propensión al Viaje, se desarrolló un modelo híbrido, formado por: una variable latente, un indicador y un modelo de elección discreta. La variable latente se denomina “Propensión al Viaje”, cuyo indicador en ecuación de medida es el número de viajes; la elección discreta es el tipo de tour. El modelo de elección consiste en 5 alternativas, según la jerarquía de actividades establecida en la tesis: HOME, no realiza viajes durante el día de estudio, HWH tour cuya actividad principal es el trabajo o estudios, y no se realizan paradas intermedias; HWHs tour si el individuo reaiza paradas intermedias; HOH tour cuya actividad principal es distinta a trabajo y estudios, y no se realizan paradas intermedias; HOHs donde se realizan paradas intermedias. Para llegar a la mejor especificación del modelo, se realizó un trabajo importante considerando diferentes estructuras de modelos y tres tipos de estimaciones. De tal manera, se obtuvieron parámetros consistentes y eficientes. Los resultados muestran que la modelización de los tours, representa una ventaja sobre la modelización de los viajes, puesto que supera las limitaciones de espacio y tiempo, enlazando los viajes realizados por la misma persona en el día de estudio. La propensión al viaje (PT) existe y es específica para cada tipo de tour. Los parámetros estimados en el modelo híbrido resultaron significativos y distintos para cada alternativa de tipo de tour. Por último, en la tesis se verifica que los modelos híbridos representan una mejora sobre los modelos tradicionales de elección discreta, dando como resultado parámetros consistentes y más robustos. En cuanto a políticas de transporte, se ha demostrado que los atributos del entorno urbano son más importantes que los LOS (Level of Service) en la generación de tours multi-etapas. la presente tesis representa el primer análisis empírico de la relación entre los tipos de tours y la propensión al viaje. El concepto Propensity to Travel ha sido desarrollado exclusivamente para la tesis. Igualmente, el desarrollo de un modelo conjunto RC-Number of trips basado en tres escalas de medida representa innovación en cuanto a la comparación de las escalas geográficas, que no había sido hecha en la modelización de la self-selection. The relationship between built environment (BE) and travel behaviour (TB) has been studied in a number of cases, using several methods - aggregate and disaggregate approaches - and different focuses – trip frequency, automobile use, and vehicle miles travelled and so on. Definitely, travel is generated by the need to undertake activities and obtain services, and there is a general consensus that urban components affect TB. However researches are still needed to better understand which components of the travel behaviour are affected most and by which of the urban components. In order to fill the gap in the research, the present dissertation faced two main objectives: (1) To contribute to the better understanding of the relationship between travel demand and urban environment. And (2) To develop an econometric model for estimating travel demand with urban environment attributes. With this purpose, the present thesis faced an exhaustive research and computation of land-use variables in order to find the best representation of BE for modelling trip frequency. In particular two empirical analyses are carried out: 1. Estimation of three dimensions of travel demand using dimensions of urban environment. We compare different travel dimensions and geographical scales, and we measure self-selection contribution following the joint models. 2. Develop a hybrid model, integrated latent variable and discrete choice model. The implementation of hybrid models is new in the analysis of land-use and travel behaviour. BE and TB explicitly interact and allow richness information about a specific individual decision process For all empirical analysis is used a data-base from a survey conducted in 2006 and 2007 in Madrid. Spatial attributes describing neighbourhood environment are derived from different data sources: National Institute of Statistics-INE (Administrative: municipality and district) and GIS (circular units). INE provides raw data for such spatial units as: municipality and district. The construction of census units is trivial as the census bureau provides tables that readily define districts and municipalities. The construction of circular units requires us to determine the radius and associate the spatial information to our households. The first empirical part analyzes trip frequency by applying an ordered logit model. In this part is studied the effect of socio-economic, transport and land use characteristics on two travel dimensions: trip frequency and type of tour. In particular the land use is defined in terms of type of neighbourhoods and types of dwellers. Three neighbourhood representations are explored, and described three for constructing neighbourhood attributes. In particular administrative units are examined to represent neighbourhood and circular – unit representation. Ordered logit models are applied, while ordinal logit models are well-known, an intensive work for constructing a spatial attributes was carried out. On the other hand, the second empirical analysis consists of the development of an innovative econometric model that considers a latent variable called “propensity to travel”, and choice model is the choice of type of tour. The first two specifications of ordinal models help to estimate this latent variable. The latent variable is unobserved but the manifestation is called “indicators”, then the probability of choosing an alternative of tour is conditional to the probability of latent variable and type of tour. Since latent variable is unknown we fit the integral over its distribution. Four “sets of best variables” are specified, following the specification obtained from the correlation analysis. The results evidence that the relative importance of SE variables versus BE variables depends on how BE variables are measured. We found that each of these three spatial scales has its intangible qualities and drawbacks. Spatial scales play an important role on predicting travel demand due to the variability in measures at trip origin/destinations within the same administrative unit (municipality, district and so on). Larger units will produce less variation in data; but it does not affect certain variables, such as public transport supply, that are more significant at municipality level. By contrast, land-use measures are more efficient at district level. Self-selection in this context, is weak. Thus, the influence of BE attributes is true. The results of the hybrid model show that unobserved factors affect the choice of tour complexity. The latent variable used in this model is propensity to travel that is explained by socioeconomic aspects and neighbourhood attributes. The results show that neighbourhood attributes have indeed a significant impact on the choice of the type of tours either directly and through the propensity to travel. The propensity to travel has a different impact depending on the structure of each tour and increases the probability of choosing more complex tours, such as tours with many intermediate stops. The integration of choice and latent variable model shows that omitting important perception and attitudes leads to inconsistent estimates. The results also indicate that goodness of fit improves by adding the latent variable in both sequential and simultaneous estimation. There are significant differences in the sensitivity to the latent variable across alternatives. In general, as expected, the hybrid models show a major improvement into the goodness of fit of the model, compared to a classical discrete choice model that does not incorporate latent effects. The integrated model leads to a more detailed analysis of the behavioural process. Summarizing, the effect that built environment characteristics on trip frequency studied is deeply analyzed. In particular we tried to better understand how land use characteristics can be defined and measured and which of these measures do have really an impact on trip frequency. We also tried to test the superiority of HCM on this field. We can concluded that HCM shows a major improvement into the goodness of fit of the model, compared to classical discrete choice model that does not incorporate latent effects. And consequently, the application of HCM shows the importance of LV on the decision of tour complexity. People are more elastic to built environment attributes than level of services. Thus, policy implications must take place to develop more mixed areas, work-places in combination with commercial retails.

Vehicular traffic surveillance and road lane detection using radar interferometry

Speed enforcement on public roadways is an important issue in order to guarantee road security and to reduce the number and seriousness of traffic accidents. Traditionally, this task has been partially solved using radar and/or laser technologies and, more recently, using video-camera based systems. All these systems have significant shortcomings that have yet to be overcome. The main drawback of classical Doppler radar technology is that the velocity measurement fails when several vehicles are in the radars beam. Modern radar systems are able to measure speed and range between vehicle and radar. However, this is not enough to discriminate the lane where the vehicle is driving on. The limitation of several vehicles in the beam is overcome using laser technology. However, laser systems have another important limitation: They cannot measure the speed of several vehicles simultaneously. Novel video-camera systems, based on license plate identification, solve the previous drawbacks, but they have the problem that they can only measure average speed but never top-speed. This paper studies the feasibility of using an interferometric linear frequency modulated continuous wave radar to improve top-speed enforcement on roadways. Two different systems based on down-the-road and across-the-road radar configurations are presented. The main advantage of the proposed solutions is they can simultaneously measure speed, range, and lane of several vehicles, allowing the univocal identification of the offenders. A detailed analysis about the operation and accuracy of these solutions is reported. In addition, the feasibility of the proposed techniques has been demonstrated with simulations and real experiments using a Ka-band interferometric radar developed by our research group.

Integral Bridge for High-Speed Railway

The structural continuity of fully integral bridges entails many advantages and some drawbacks. Among the latter, the cyclic expansions and contractions of the deck caused by seasonal thermal variations impose alternating displacements at the piers and abutments, with effects that may be difficult to establish reliably. The advantages include easier construction and cheaper maintenance but, especially, horizontal loads can be transmitted to the ground in a much better way than in conventional bridges. This paper first presents a methodology for dealing with the problems that the cyclic displacements imposed raise at the abutments and at the bridge piers. At the former, large pressures may develop, possibly accompanied by undesirable surface settlements. At the latter, the degree of cracking and the ability to carry the specified loads may be in question. Having quantified the drawbacks, simplified but realistic analyses are conducted of the response of an integral bridge to braking and seismic loads. It is shown that integral bridges constitute an excellent alternative in the context of the requirements posed by new high-speed railway lines.

The lead salt quantum dot intermediate band solar cell

We propose a new kind of quantum dot (QD) materials for the implementation of the intermediate band solar cell (IBSC) [1]. The materials are formed by lead salt QDs of the family IV-VI (PbTe, PbSe or PbS) embedded in a semiconductor of the family II-VI (Cd1-xMgxTe, CdxZn1-xTe, and CdS1-xSex or ZnSe1-xTex, respectively). These QDs are not nucleated due to lattice mismatch, as it is the case of the InAs/GaAs QD material system grown by the Stranski-Krastanov (S-K) mode. In these materials, the QDs precipitate due to the difference in lattice type: the QD lead salt material crystallizes in the rocksalt structure, while the II-VI host material has the zincblende structure [2]. Therefore, it is possible to use lattice-matched QD/host combinations, avoiding all the strain-related problems found in previous QD-IBSC developments. In this paper we discuss the properties of the lead salt QD materials and propose that they are appropriate to overcome the fundamental drawbacks of present III-V-based QD-IBSC prototypes. We also calculate the band diagram for some examples of IV-VI/II-VI QD materials. The detailed balance efficiency limit of QD-IBSCs based on the studied materials is found to be over 60% under maximum concentration.

Uniformly Reweighted Belief Propagation: A Factor Graph Approach

Tree-reweighted belief propagation is a message passing method that has certain advantages compared to traditional belief propagation (BP). However, it fails to outperform BP in a consistent manner, does not lend itself well to distributed implementation, and has not been applied to distributions with higher-order interactions. We propose a method called uniformly-reweighted belief propagation that mitigates these drawbacks. After having shown in previous works that this method can substantially outperform BP in distributed inference with pairwise interaction models, in this paper we extend it to higher-order interactions and apply it to LDPC decoding, leading performance gains over BP.

Current Mode with RMS Voltage and Offset Control Loops for a Single-Phase Aircraft Inverter Suitable for Parallel and 3-Phase Operation Modes

Rms voltage regulation may be an attractive possibility for controlling power inverters. Combined with a Hall Effect sensor for current control, it keeps its parallel operation capability while increasing its noise immunity, which may lead to a reduction of the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). Besides, as voltage regulation is designed in DC, a simple PI regulator can provide accurate voltage tracking. Nevertheless, this approach does not lack drawbacks. Its narrow voltage bandwidth makes transients last longer and it increases the voltage THD when feeding non-linear loads, such as rectifying stages. On the other hand, the implementation can fall into offset voltage error. Furthermore, the information of the output voltage phase is hidden for the control as well, making the synchronization of a 3-phase setup not trivial. This paper explains the concept, design and implementation of the whole control scheme, in an on board inverter able to run in parallel and within a 3-phase setup. Special attention is paid to solve the problems foreseen at implementation level: a third analog loop accounts for the offset level is added and a digital algorithm guarantees 3-phase voltage synchronization.

Multiphase transformer-coupled converter: two different strategies for energy conversion

The operation of a multiphase topology, ideally, without energy storage presents the advantage of achieving very high efficiency over a wide load range as well as a fast dynamic response. However, ideal no-energy storage operation also implies a limitation in the regulation capability of the topology, the output voltage can only take discrete values. These features (high efficiency and discrete regulation capability) of the proposed energy conversion strategy enable the topology as a candidate for `DC-DC transformer' applications. The advantages, drawbacks and the operating principle of this concept, implemented with a `closed chain' magnetic structure have been already presented. In this work, the minimum energy storage operation, is applied to two different magnetic structures. These magnetic structures are called `closed chain' and `pyramidal' the main advantage of the `pyramidal' coupling structure is to improve the size of the converter without increasing the operating frequency. Both magnetic structures are analyzed, compared and experimentally implemented.

Solution-processed organic devices developed by a novel cost-effective patterning technique based on electrical erosion

Application of arc erosion to the patterning of metallic contacts in organic devices is presented. A home-made systems and details of the working principles are described. Advantages and drawbacks of this novel technology are discussed.

Incremental analysis of constraint logic programs

Global analyzers traditionally read and analyze the entire program at once, in a nonincremental way. However, there are many situations which are not well suited to this simple model and which instead require reanalysis of certain parts of a program which has already been analyzed. In these cases, it appears inecient to perform the analysis of the program again from scratch, as needs to be done with current systems. We describe how the xed-point algorithms used in current generic analysis engines for (constraint) logic programming languages can be extended to support incremental analysis. The possible changes to a program are classied into three types: addition, deletion, and arbitrary change. For each one of these, we provide one or more algorithms for identifying the parts of the analysis that must be recomputed and for performing the actual recomputation. The potential benets and drawbacks of these algorithms are discussed. Finally, we present some experimental results obtained with an implementation of the algorithms in the PLAI generic abstract interpretation framework. The results show signicant benets when using the proposed incremental analysis algorithms.

Array Compacto De Monopolos Planos Con Plano De Tierra Ranurado Para Sistemas Mimo

A compact array of monopoles with a slotted ground plane is analyzed for being used in MIMO systems. Compact arrays suffer usually from high coupling which degrades significantly MIMO benefits. Through a matching network, main drawbacks can be solved, although it tends to provide a low bandwidth. The studied design is an array of monopoles with a slot in the ground plane. The slot shape is optimized with a Genetic Algorithm and an own electromagnetic software based on MoM in order to fulfill main figures of merit within a significant bandwidth

SMA-Based Muscle-Like Actuation in Biologically Inspired Robots: A State of the Art Review

New actuation technology in functional or "smart" materials has opened new horizons in robotics actuation systems. Materials such as piezo-electric fiber composites, electro-active polymers and shape memory alloys (SMA) are being investigated as promising alternatives to standard servomotor technology [52]. This paper focuses on the use of SMAs for building muscle-like actuators. SMAs are extremely cheap, easily available commercially and have the advantage of working at low voltages. The use of SMA provides a very interesting alternative to the mechanisms used by conventional actuators. SMAs allow to drastically reduce the size, weight and complexity of robotic systems. In fact, their large force-weight ratio, large life cycles, negligible volume, sensing capability and noise-free operation make possible the use of this technology for building a new class of actuation devices. Nonetheless, high power consumption and low bandwidth limit this technology for certain kind of applications. This presents a challenge that must be addressed from both materials and control perspectives in order to overcome these drawbacks. Here, the latter is tackled. It has been demonstrated that suitable control strategies and proper mechanical arrangements can dramatically improve on SMA performance, mostly in terms of actuation speed and limit cycles.

Estudio de la tecnología de identificación por radiofrecuencia, desarrollo y aplicaciones, seguridad, amenazas y mal uso

Resumen Ejecutivo Desde hace unos años, la tecnología RFID parece estar tecnológicamente madura, aunque se halla inmersa en una continua evolución y mejora de sus prestaciones frente a la tecnología basada en el código de barras. Esta tecnología está empezando a aumentar su comercialización y uso generalizado. Este proyecto describe su funcionamiento y arquitectura, las aplicaciones e implementaciones reales en diversos sectores empresariales y soluciones o propuestas para mejorar y fomentar investigaciones, desarrollos e implementaciones futuras. Una primera parte consiste en el desarrollo teórico del funcionamiento, parámetros físicos y la arquitectura RFID. En la segunda parte se estudian las aplicaciones potenciales, beneficios e inconvenientes y varios puntos de vista; empresas que invierten a favor de RFID y han realizado implementaciones reales exitosas y organizaciones en contra. La tercera y última parte analiza las consecuencias negativas que supone un mal uso de la tecnología como la pérdida de privacidad o confidencialidad, se proponen algunas medidas de seguridad y soluciones al problema utilizando la regularización y estandarización. Finalmente, tras estudiar la tecnología RFID, se aportan algunas conclusiones de carácter actual y de futuro después de observar resultados de expectativas previstas. Executive Summary For several years, RFID technology seems to be technologically mature, but is immersed in a continuous evolution and improvement of their performance than the technology based on the barcode. This technology is starting to increase their marketing and widespread use. This project describes its operation and architecture, applications and real implementations in different business sectors and solutions or proposals to improve and enhance research, development and future implementations. The first part consists of theory development of the operation, physical parameters and architecture RFID. The second part focuses on the potential applications, benefits and drawbacks and several points of view; companies investing on behalf of RFID and have made successful actual deployments and organizations against. The third and last part discusses the negative impact that is a bad use of technology such as loss of privacy or confidentiality; suggest some security measures and solutions to the problem using regularization and standardization. Finally, it provides some conclusions of the current character, after studying RFID technology and the future after observing results of expectations.

Modelización de costas rocosas acantiladas

El retroceso de las costas acantiladas es un fenómeno muy extendido sobre los litorales rocosos expuestos a la incidencia combinada de los procesos marinos y meteorológicos que se dan en la franja costera. Este fenómeno se revela violentamente como movimientos gravitacionales del terreno esporádicos, pudiendo causar pérdidas materiales y/o humanas. Aunque el conocimiento de estos riesgos de erosión resulta de vital importancia para la correcta gestión de la costa, el desarrollo de modelos predictivos se encuentra limitado desde el punto de vista geomorfológico debido a la complejidad e interacción de los procesos de desarrollo espacio-temporal que tienen lugar en la zona costera. Los modelos de predicción publicados son escasos y con importantes inconvenientes: a) extrapolación, extienden la información de registros históricos; b) empíricos, sobre registros históricos estudian la respuesta al cambio de un parámetro; c) estocásticos, determinan la cadencia y magnitud de los eventos futuros extrapolando las distribuciones de probabilidad extraídas de catálogos históricos; d) proceso-respuesta, de estabilidad y propagación del error inexplorada; e) en Ecuaciones en Derivadas Parciales, computacionalmente costosos y poco exactos. La primera parte de esta tesis detalla las principales características de los modelos más recientes de cada tipo y, para los más habitualmente utilizados, se indican sus rangos de aplicación, ventajas e inconvenientes. Finalmente como síntesis de los procesos más relevantes que contemplan los modelos revisados, se presenta un diagrama conceptual de la recesión costera, donde se recogen los procesos más influyentes que deben ser tenidos en cuenta, a la hora de utilizar o crear un modelo de recesión costera con el objetivo de evaluar la peligrosidad (tiempo/frecuencia) del fenómeno a medio-corto plazo. En esta tesis se desarrolla un modelo de proceso-respuesta de retroceso de acantilados costeros que incorpora el comportamiento geomecánico de materiales cuya resistencia a compresión no supere los 5 MPa. El modelo simula la evolución espaciotemporal de un perfil-2D del acantilado que puede estar formado por materiales heterogéneos. Para ello, se acoplan la dinámica marina: nivel medio del mar, cambios en el nivel medio del lago, mareas y oleaje; con la evolución del terreno: erosión, desprendimiento rocoso y formación de talud de derrubios. El modelo en sus diferentes variantes es capaz de incluir el análisis de la estabilidad geomecánica de los materiales, el efecto de los derrubios presentes al pie del acantilado, el efecto del agua subterránea, la playa, el run-up, cambios en el nivel medio del mar o cambios (estacionales o interanuales) en el nivel medio de la masa de agua (lagos). Se ha estudiado el error de discretización del modelo y su propagación en el tiempo a partir de las soluciones exactas para los dos primeros periodos de marea para diferentes aproximaciones numéricas tanto en tiempo como en espacio. Los resultados obtenidos han permitido justificar las elecciones que minimizan el error y los métodos de aproximación más adecuados para su posterior uso en la modelización. El modelo ha sido validado frente a datos reales en la costa de Holderness, Yorkshire, Reino Unido; y en la costa norte del lago Erie, Ontario, Canadá. Los resultados obtenidos presentan un importante avance en los modelos de recesión costera, especialmente en su relación con las condiciones geomecánicas del medio, la influencia del agua subterránea, la verticalización de los perfiles rocosos y su respuesta ante condiciones variables producidas por el cambio climático (por ejemplo, nivel medio del mar, cambios en los niveles de lago, etc.). The recession of coastal cliffs is a widespread phenomenon on the rocky shores that are exposed to the combined incidence of marine and meteorological processes that occur in the shoreline. This phenomenon is revealed violently and occasionally, as gravitational movements of the ground and can cause material or human losses. Although knowledge of the risks of erosion is vital for the proper management of the coast, the development of cliff erosion predictive models is limited by the complex interactions between environmental processes and material properties over a range of temporal and spatial scales. Published prediction models are scarce and present important drawbacks: extrapolation, that extend historical records to the future; empirical, that based on historical records studies the system response against the change in one parameter; stochastic, that represent of cliff behaviour based on assumptions regarding the magnitude and frequency of events in a probabilistic framework based on historical records; process-response, stability and error propagation unexplored; PDE´s, highly computationally expensive and not very accurate. The first part of this thesis describes the main features of the latest models of each type and, for the most commonly used, their ranges of application, advantages and disadvantages are given. Finally as a synthesis of the most relevant processes that include the revised models, a conceptual diagram of coastal recession is presented. This conceptual model includes the most influential processes that must be taken into account when using or creating a model of coastal recession to evaluate the dangerousness (time/frequency) of the phenomenon to medium-short term. A new process-response coastal recession model developed in this thesis has been designed to incorporate the behavioural and mechanical characteristics of coastal cliffs which are composed of with materials whose compressive strength is less than 5 MPa. The model simulates the spatial and temporal evolution of a cliff-2D profile that can consist of heterogeneous materials. To do so, marine dynamics: mean sea level, waves, tides, lake seasonal changes; is coupled with the evolution of land recession: erosion, cliff face failure and associated protective colluvial wedge. The model in its different variants can include analysis of material geomechanical stability, the effect of debris present at the cliff foot, groundwater effects, beach and run-up effects, changes in the mean sea level or changes (seasonal or inter-annual) in the mean lake level. Computational implementation and study of different numerical resolution techniques, in both time and space approximations, and the produced errors are exposed and analysed for the first two tidal periods. The results obtained in the errors analysis allow us to operate the model with a configuration that minimizes the error of the approximation methods. The model is validated through profile evolution assessment at various locations of coastline retreat on the Holderness Coast, Yorkshire, UK and on the north coast of Lake Erie, Ontario, Canada. The results represent an important stepforward in linking material properties to the processes of cliff recession, in considering the effect of groundwater charge and the slope oversteeping and their response to changing conditions caused by climate change (i.e. sea level, changes in lakes levels, etc.).

Multimodal non-rigid image registration methods for therapy and surgery planning

La planificación pre-operatoria se ha convertido en una tarea esencial en cirugías y terapias de marcada complejidad, especialmente aquellas relacionadas con órgano blando. Un ejemplo donde la planificación preoperatoria tiene gran interés es la cirugía hepática. Dicha planificación comprende la detección e identificación precisa de las lesiones individuales y vasos así como la correcta segmentación y estimación volumétrica del hígado funcional. Este proceso es muy importante porque determina tanto si el paciente es un candidato adecuado para terapia quirúrgica como la definición del abordaje a seguir en el procedimiento. La radioterapia de órgano blando es un segundo ejemplo donde la planificación se requiere tanto para la radioterapia externa convencional como para la radioterapia intraoperatoria. La planificación comprende la segmentación de tumor y órganos vulnerables y la estimación de la dosimetría. La segmentación de hígado funcional y la estimación volumétrica para planificación de la cirugía se estiman habitualmente a partir de imágenes de tomografía computarizada (TC). De igual modo, en la planificación de radioterapia, los objetivos de la radiación se delinean normalmente sobre TC. Sin embargo, los avances en las tecnologías de imagen de resonancia magnética (RM) están ofreciendo progresivamente ventajas adicionales. Por ejemplo, se ha visto que el ratio de detección de metástasis hepáticas es significativamente superior en RM con contraste Gd–EOB–DTPA que en TC. Por tanto, recientes estudios han destacado la importancia de combinar la información de TC y RM para conseguir el mayor nivel posible de precisión en radioterapia y para facilitar una descripción precisa de las lesiones del hígado. Con el objetivo de mejorar la planificación preoperatoria en ambos escenarios se precisa claramente de un algoritmo de registro no rígido de imagen. Sin embargo, la gran mayoría de sistemas comerciales solo proporcionan métodos de registro rígido. Las medidas de intensidad de voxel han demostrado ser criterios de similitud de imágenes robustos, y, entre ellas, la Información Mutua (IM) es siempre la primera elegida en registros multimodales. Sin embargo, uno de los principales problemas de la IM es la ausencia de información espacial y la asunción de que las relaciones estadísticas entre las imágenes son homogéneas a lo largo de su domino completo. La hipótesis de esta tesis es que la incorporación de información espacial de órganos al proceso de registro puede mejorar la robustez y calidad del mismo, beneficiándose de la disponibilidad de las segmentaciones clínicas. En este trabajo, se propone y valida un esquema de registro multimodal no rígido 3D usando una nueva métrica llamada Información Mutua Centrada en el Órgano (Organ-Focused Mutual Information metric (OF-MI)) y se compara con la formulación clásica de la Información Mutua. Esto permite mejorar los resultados del registro en áreas problemáticas incorporando información regional al criterio de similitud, beneficiándose de la disponibilidad real de segmentaciones en protocolos estándares clínicos, y permitiendo que la dependencia estadística entre las dos modalidades de imagen difiera entre órganos o regiones. El método propuesto se ha aplicado al registro de TC y RM con contraste Gd–EOB–DTPA así como al registro de imágenes de TC y MR para planificación de radioterapia intraoperatoria rectal. Adicionalmente, se ha desarrollado un algoritmo de apoyo de segmentación 3D basado en Level-Sets para la incorporación de la información de órgano en el registro. El algoritmo de segmentación se ha diseñado específicamente para la estimación volumétrica de hígado sano funcional y ha demostrado un buen funcionamiento en un conjunto de imágenes de TC abdominales. Los resultados muestran una mejora estadísticamente significativa de OF-MI comparada con la Información Mutua clásica en las medidas de calidad de los registros; tanto con datos simulados (p<0.001) como con datos reales en registro hepático de TC y RM con contraste Gd– EOB–DTPA y en registro para planificación de radioterapia rectal usando OF-MI multi-órgano (p<0.05). Adicionalmente, OF-MI presenta resultados más estables con menor dispersión que la Información Mutua y un comportamiento más robusto con respecto a cambios en la relación señal-ruido y a la variación de parámetros. La métrica OF-MI propuesta en esta tesis presenta siempre igual o mayor precisión que la clásica Información Mutua y consecuentemente puede ser una muy buena alternativa en aplicaciones donde la robustez del método y la facilidad en la elección de parámetros sean particularmente importantes. Abstract Pre-operative planning has become an essential task in complex surgeries and therapies, especially for those affecting soft tissue. One example where soft tissue preoperative planning is of high interest is liver surgery. It involves the accurate detection and identification of individual liver lesions and vessels as well as the proper functional liver segmentation and volume estimation. This process is very important because it determines whether the patient is a suitable candidate for surgical therapy and the type of procedure. Soft tissue radiation therapy is a second example where planning is required for both conventional external and intraoperative radiotherapy. It involves the segmentation of the tumor target and vulnerable organs and the estimation of the planned dose. Functional liver segmentations and volume estimations for surgery planning are commonly estimated from computed tomography (CT) images. Similarly, in radiation therapy planning, targets to be irradiated and healthy and vulnerable tissues to be protected from irradiation are commonly delineated on CT scans. However, developments in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology are progressively offering advantages. For instance, the hepatic metastasis detection rate has been found to be significantly higher in Gd–EOB–DTPAenhanced MRI than in CT. Therefore, recent studies highlight the importance of combining the information from CT and MRI to achieve the highest level of accuracy in radiotherapy and to facilitate accurate liver lesion description. In order to improve those two soft tissue pre operative planning scenarios, an accurate nonrigid image registration algorithm is clearly required. However, the vast majority of commercial systems only provide rigid registration. Voxel intensity measures have been shown to be robust measures of image similarity, and among them, Mutual Information (MI) is always the first candidate in multimodal registrations. However, one of the main drawbacks of Mutual Information is the absence of spatial information and the assumption that statistical relationships between images are the same over the whole domain of the image. The hypothesis of the present thesis is that incorporating spatial organ information into the registration process may improve the registration robustness and quality, taking advantage of the clinical segmentations availability. In this work, a multimodal nonrigid 3D registration framework using a new Organ- Focused Mutual Information metric (OF-MI) is proposed, validated and compared to the classical formulation of the Mutual Information (MI). It allows improving registration results in problematic areas by adding regional information into the similitude criterion taking advantage of actual segmentations availability in standard clinical protocols and allowing the statistical dependence between the two modalities differ among organs or regions. The proposed method is applied to CT and T1 weighted delayed Gd–EOB–DTPA-enhanced MRI registration as well as to register CT and MRI images in rectal intraoperative radiotherapy planning. Additionally, a 3D support segmentation algorithm based on Level-Sets has been developed for the incorporation of the organ information into the registration. The segmentation algorithm has been specifically designed for the healthy and functional liver volume estimation demonstrating good performance in a set of abdominal CT studies. Results show a statistical significant improvement of registration quality measures with OF-MI compared to MI with both simulated data (p<0.001) and real data in liver applications registering CT and Gd–EOB–DTPA-enhanced MRI and in registration for rectal radiotherapy planning using multi-organ OF-MI (p<0.05). Additionally, OF-MI presents more stable results with smaller dispersion than MI and a more robust behavior with respect to SNR changes and parameters variation. The proposed OF-MI always presents equal or better accuracy than the classical MI and consequently can be a very convenient alternative within applications where the robustness of the method and the facility to choose the parameters are particularly important.