Practical case with regard to applying the functional and environmental method to low crest level, detached breakwaters

The research work as presented in this article covers the design of detached breakwaters since they constitute a type of coastal defence work with which to combat many of the erosion problems found on beaches in a stable, sustainable fashion. The main aim of this work is to formulate a functional and environmental (but not structural) design method, enabling the fundamental characteristics of a detached breakwater to be defined as a function of the effect it is wished to induce on the coast, and taking into account variables of a different nature (climate, geomorphology and geometry) influencing the changes the shoreline undergoes after its construction. With this article, it is intended to submit the final result of the investigation undertaken, applying the detached breakwater design method as developed to solving a practical case. Thus it may be shown how the method enables a detached breakwater’s geometric pre-sizing to be tackled at a place on the coast with certain climate, geomorphology and littoral dynamic characteristics, first setting the final state of equilibrium it is wanted to obtain therein after its construction.

Functional and environmental design of detached, low crest level breakwaters

In this article we research the design of detached breakwaters, a type of coastal defence work designed to combat erosion on beaches in a stable, sustainable fashion. Our aim is to formulate a functional and environmental (nonstructural) method of design that defines the fundamental characteristics of a detached breakwater as a function of the desired effect on the coast whilst meeting social demands and preserving or improving the quality of the littoral environment. We aim to make this method generally applicable by considering relations between variables of different natures (climatic, geomorphologic, and geometric) influencing the changes experienced on the coast after the detached breakwater has been built. We carried out the study of the relations between the different variables on the data from 19 actual, existing detached breakwaters on the Spanish Mediterranean coastline, and we followed a methodology based on the implementation of nondimensional monomials and on a search for relations of dependency between them. Finally, we discussed the results obtained and came up with a proposal for a design method that uses some of the graphic relations found between the variables studied and that achieves the main objective. For example, a case of a detached breakwater’s geometric presizing is solved as a practical demonstration of how the method is applied. La investigación que se presenta en este artículo aborda el diseño de los diques exentos, por constituir estos un tipo de obras de defensa costera con el que poder luchar de una forma estable y sostenible contra muchos de los problemas de erosión que existen en las playas. El objetivo principal de este trabajo es la formulación de un método de diseño funcional y ambiental (no estructural) que permita definir las características fundamentales de un dique exento en función del efecto que se quiera inducir en la costa, satisfaciendo las demandas sociales y preservando o mejorando la calidad del medio ambiente litoral. Además, se busca la aplicabilidad general del método mediante la consideración de relaciones entre variables de distinta naturaleza (climáticas, geomorfológicas y geométricas) que tienen influencia en los cambios que se experimentan en la costa tras la construcción del dique exento. El estudio de las relaciones entre las distintas variables se realiza sobre los datos de una base de diecinueve diques exentos reales, existentes en el litoral mediterráneo español, y sigue una metodología basada en el planteamiento de monomios adimensionales y en la búsqueda de relaciones de dependencia entre ellos. Finalmente, la discusión de los resultados obtenidos conduce a la propuesta de un método de diseño que utiliza algunas de las relaciones graficas encontradas entre las variables estudiadas y con el que se consigue el objetivo principal anteriormente expuesto. Para demostrar la aplicación práctica del método se resuelve un caso de predimensionamiento geométrico de un dique exento a modo de ejemplo.

Analysis of wave attenuation and shore protection of a bulk carrier ship performing as a detached floating breakwater

Análisis de la atenuación del oleaje por un carguero funcionando como dique flotante y aplicación a dos casos de protección portuaria y costera. The effectiveness of a bulk carrier working as a detached floating breakwater to protect a stretch of coast and form salients or tombolos is assessed in this paper. Experiments were conducted in the Madrid CEDEX facilities in a 30 m long, 3 m wide, 1/150 scale flume. The bulk carrier ship is 205 m long, 29 m wide and 18 m in height with a draught of 13 m, and has been subjected to irregular waves with significant heights from 2 m to 4 m and peak periods from 6 s to 12 s at a depth of 15 m, all prototype dimensions. Three probes were placed between the wave paddle and the ship to record incident and reflected waves and four probes were placed between the ship and the coastline to measure the transmitted waves. Transmission, reflection and dissipation coefficients (Ct, Cr, Cd) were calculated to determine wave attenuation. Results show good shelter in the lee of the ship with values of Ct under 0.5 for peak periods from 6 s to 11 s. In addition, forces on the mooring chains were measured showing maximum values of about 2000 tons at a 10 speak period. Finally, two analytical models were used to determine the shoreline’s response to the ship’s protection and to assess the possible forming of salients or tombolos. According to the results, salients - but not tombolos - are formed in all tests.

Aeroacoustic noise prediction in high speed trains due to attached and detached flow

This paper aims to set out the influence of the flow field around high speed trains in open field. To achieve this parametric analysis of the sound pressure inside the train was performed. Three vibroacoustic models of a characteristic train section are used to predict the noise inside the train in open field by using finite element method FEM, boundary element method (BEM) and statistical energy analysis (SEA) depending on the frequency range of analysis. The turbulent boundary layer excitation is implemented as the only airborne noise source, in order to focus on the study of the attached and detached flow in the surface of the train. The power spectral densities of the pressure fluctuation in the train surface proposed by [Cockburn and Roberson 1974, Rennison et al. 2009] are applied on the exterior surface of the structural subsystems in the vibroacoustic models. An increase in the sound pressure level up to10 dB can be appreciated due to the detachment of the flow around the train. These results highlight the importance to determine the detached regions prediction, making critical the airborne noise due to turbulent boundary layer.

Uso de DES y RANS no estacionario para la simulación del flujo alrededor de una carena Wigley - Use of Unsteady RANS and DES to simulate flows around a Wigley Hull)

Computer Fluid Dynamics tools have already become a valuable instrument for Naval Architects during the ship design process, thanks to their accuracy and the available computer power. Unfortunately, the development of RANSE codes, generally used when viscous effects play a major role in the flow, has not reached a mature stage, being the accuracy of the turbulence models and the free surface representation the most important sources of uncertainty. Another level of uncertainty is added when the simulations are carried out for unsteady flows, as those generally studied in seakeeping and maneuvering analysis and URANS equations solvers are used. Present work shows the applicability and the benefits derived from the use of new approaches for the turbulence modeling (Detached Eddy Simulation) and the free surface representation (Level Set) on the URANS equations solver CFDSHIP-Iowa. Compared to URANS, DES is expected to predict much broader frequency contents and behave better in flows where boundary layer separation plays a major role. Level Set methods are able to capture very complex free surface geometries, including breaking and overturning waves. The performance of these improvements is tested in set of fairly complex flows, generated by a Wigley hull at pure drift motion, with drift angle ranging from 10 to 60 degrees and at several Froude numbers to study the impact of its variation. Quantitative verification and validation are performed with the obtained results to guarantee their accuracy. The results show the capability of the CFDSHIP-Iowa code to carry out time-accurate simulations of complex flows of extreme unsteady ship maneuvers. The Level Set method is able to capture very complex geometries of the free surface and the use of DES in unsteady simulations highly improves the results obtained. Vortical structures and instabilities as a function of the drift angle and Fr are qualitatively identified. Overall analysis of the flow pattern shows a strong correlation between the vortical structures and free surface wave pattern. Karman-like vortex shedding is identified and the scaled St agrees well with the universal St value. Tip vortices are identified and the associated helical instabilities are analyzed. St using the hull length decreases with the increase of the distance along the vortex core (x), which is similar to results from other simulations. However, St scaled using distance along the vortex cores shows strong oscillations compared to almost constants for those previous simulations. The difference may be caused by the effect of the free-surface, grid resolution, and interaction between the tip vortex and other vortical structures, which needs further investigations. This study is exploratory in the sense that finer grids are desirable and experimental data is lacking for large α, especially for the local flow. More recently, high performance computational capability of CFDSHIP-Iowa V4 has been improved such that large scale computations are possible. DES for DTMB 5415 with bilge keels at α = 20º were conducted using three grids with 10M, 48M and 250M points. DES analysis for flows around KVLCC2 at α = 30º is analyzed using a 13M grid and compared with the results of DES on the 1.6M grid by. Both studies are consistent with what was concluded on grid resolution herein since dominant frequencies for shear-layer, Karman-like, horse-shoe and helical instabilities only show marginal variation on grid refinement. The penalties of using coarse grids are smaller frequency amplitude and less resolved TKE. Therefore finer grids should be used to improve V&V for resolving most of the active turbulent scales for all different Fr and α, which hopefully can be compared with additional EFD data for large α when it becomes available.

Forest Hydrology, Soil Conservation and Green Barriers in Canary Islands

In volcanic islands, the rainfall regime and its torrential nature, together with the steep slopes and the soil types present are considered to be some of the main factors affecting forest hydrology and soil conservation. In such environments, rain regime is generally irregular and characterized by short and intense rainfalls, which could cause destructive flows at times, followed by long periods of rain absence. The volcanic nature of these islands have as a direct resultant steep slopes which influences the runoff volume and speed, as well as the amount of topsoil susceptible to be detached and transported downstream. The soil type also affects the susceptibility to erosion processes. Andisols are the most typical soil on volcanic islands. Their particularities derive their mineral constituents, called short-range-order products, which provide these soils with an increased structural stability, which in turn reduces their susceptibility to erosion. However, the land use changes and the environmental factors such as rain regime and steep slopes may be determinant factor in destabilizing these soils and ultimately a cause for soil erosion and runoffs, which become a threat to the population downstream. Green barriers have been traditionally used to prevent or reduce these processes, also to enhance the dew effect and the fog water collection, and as a firebreak which acts as a barrier to slow or stop the progress of a wildfire. Wooded species present and subsequently their performance have a major influence on their effectiveness. The use of this natural erosion and fire control methods on volcanic islands is discussed in this paper.

Los recursos medioambientales aplicados a la arquitectura contemporánea en vivienda aislada

Objetivos. Análisis a través del prisma de la sostenibilidad, con un triple objetivo: consumo de energía, aspecto constructivo y recursos arquitectónicos, de algunos ejemplos destacados de vivienda aislada desde 1973, crisis del petróleo, hasta el cambio ideológico del 11 de septiembre de 2001. Emplazadas en microclimas semejantes en distintas latitudes, para extrapolar al clima mediterráneo. Ejemplos. Siete viviendas aisladas de distinto diseño conceptual, situadas en climas subtropicales, en ecosistemas variados pero de concepción medioambiental, constructiva y arquitectónica muy actual. Los ejemplos elegidos, por su intencionalidad, su diseño, y su sentido utilitario, constructivo y semiótico, se analizan desde el hecho acumulativo y el hecho reactivo, mediante el procedimiento de contrastar diversas fuentes de información. Objetivos. El análisis de cada una de las viviendas procedentes de diferentes arquitectos, se hace mediante la simulación de modelos que permitan describir la parte esencial del comportamiento de un sistema de interés, así como diseñar y realizar experimentos con el modelo para extraer conclusiones de sus resultados y apoyar la toma de decisiones proyectual. Procedimiento. En una primera fase, el medio natural queda definido por su localización, interpretación del lugar, el clima concreto (mediante climogramas generales y de isopletas), determinando un diagnóstico medioambiental para el establecimiento de estrategias a partir de los datos experimentales a contrastar con el resultado finalmente obtenido. En una segunda fase se eligen los casos más representativos de LowTech / LowEnergy y HighTech / HighEnergy. Se realiza un análisis del modelo, frente a uno de los elementos predominantes: sol, aire, agua, tierra, luna, vegetación y miscelánea. Resultados. De los casos estudiados se extraen principios aplicables en cada uno de los ámbitos: medioambiental, relacionados con la adaptabilidad energética; constructivo, en relación con la economía; y arquitectónico, vinculado con lo social, con una perspectiva diferente sobre los nuevos espacios vivibles. Conclusiones y relevancia. En los emplazamientos estudiados, los arquitectos herederos del movimiento moderno, han utilizado los recursos medioambientales pasivos y activos más actuales en cada uno de los elementos, así como la orientación, la ventilación, la radiación, la inercia térmica,…las actitudes más contemporáneas como expertos bioclimáticos. Los principios extraídos deben facilitar un proceso proyectual mediante pautas experimentales a desarrollar sin un uso desmesurado de la tecnología. Los principios y las conclusiones obtenidos servirán de aplicación a nuevos modelos conociendo los parámetros más relevantes. La modelización analógica - digital permitirá evaluar el comportamiento más aplicable según las necesidades a satisfacer. Objectives. Architectural analysis through the prism of sustainability with three aims: energy consumption, building technique and architectonical resources. The study is focused on some key examples of low density houses since 1973 (featured by the Oil crisis) until the 11th September 2001´s ideological change. These living spaces are settled in similar microclimates although in different latitudes with strong possibilities for applications in Mediterranean climates. Examples. Seven remote detached dwellings with different conceptual characters, located in subtropical climates, in different ecosystems, however with a sustainable basis and architectonical building concepts very updated. The cultural objects chosen, due to legitimate reasons such as: purpose, a plan, an utilitarian sense, constructive and semiotic, are analyzed under an accumulative perspective along with the reactive fact as the procedure to contrast and compare different sources of information. Goals. The analysis of the examples of different architects, will be done in order to simulate through models which describe and display the essential part of behaviour that corresponds to an interest system, along with the design and to try out or experiment with the model and to draw up results which support the projecting decision process. Procedure. On a first stage, the natural environment is shaped by its location, interpretation of the pace, a particular climate (through general climograms and isophlets), determining an environmental diagnosis which would be able to generate scientific conclusions in order to develop adequate strategies. Hence from experimental data we contrast with the results. On a second stage the more representative cases of LowTech / LowEnergy and HighTech / HighEnergy are choosen. We analyze the model taking into consideration and facing a key element: sun, air, water, soil, moon, vegetation and miscellany. Results. From the study cases we draw up applicable principles in each field: the ecological in relation with energetic adaptability, the constructive potential related with economy, and the social in relation with a different perspective about new architectural living spaces. Conclusions and Relevance. On those settlements studied, the heirs architects from Modern Movement, had used the passive and active, updated environmental resources in each element. For instance, aspects like orientation, ventilation, solar radiation, thermal inertia…, and the most contemporary attitude as bioclimatic expert that they are. These principles speed up through experimental guidelines, the technology is diminished and the design process be provided. The principles and conclusions generated will be useful in order to apply new models because we are able to know the most relevant key parameters. The analogical-digital modelizations allow us to revaluate the applicable behaviour according to the needs to satisfy.

Embryogenic suspensions of adult cork oak: the first step towards mass propagation.

Abstract Protocols have been established to clone adult cork oak trees by somatic embryogenesis using semisolid medium. However, for economically viable mass propagation, embryogenic cultures in liquid medium need to be developed. In this study, suspension cultures were initiated from embryo clusters obtained by secondary embryogenesis on a gelled medium lacking plant growth regulators. After 6 days of culture, these embryo clusters generated high cell density suspensions that also contained small organized structures (embryos and embryogenic clumps). As the culture duration increased, tissue necrosis and fewer embryogenic structures were observed and the establishment of suspension cultures failed. An alternative method was found adequate for initiation of embryogenic suspensions: embryo clusters from gelled medium were briefly shaken in liquid medium and detached cells and embryogenic masses of 41?800 lm were used as inoculum. Maintenance of embryogenic suspensions was achieved using a low-density inoculum (43 mg l-1) by subculturing four embryogenic clumps of 0.8?1.2 mm per 70 ml of medium. Proliferation ability was maintained for almost 1 year through ten consecutive subcultures. The initiation and maintenance protocols first developed for a single genotype were effective when tested on 11 cork oak genotypes.

Ensayos de laboratorio para la medida de la tasa de absorción específica (SAR) en dispositivos móviles

El proyecto trata del estudio de la tasa de absorción específica (SAR). En él se estudia la SAR que desprenden distintos dispositivos de comunicaciones inalámbricos. Se ha llevado a cabo en las instalaciones de la SETSI, en el laboratorio de radiofrecuencia situado en El Casar, Guadalajara, que pertenece al Ministerio de Industria Comercio y Turismo. La SAR es una relación entre la energía electromagnética acumulada en una masa de un material o tejido concreto. Por tanto, lo primero es definir la SAR, en la que se exponen sus parámetros. Además, se recogen los límites de exposición fijados por las normas internacionales IEC 62209-1 e IEC 62209-2 en relación a SAR. Posteriormente, acorde con las normas, se realiza una definición detallada de un banco de medidas de SAR, en donde se explica cada uno de los componentes del banco de manera detallada así como los sistemas que intervienen previamente a la realización de la medida, tipos de los sistemas para realizar las verificaciones pertinentes, y también las incertidumbres de ciertos parámetros. También se realiza un proceso completo de medida de SAR en el laboratorio de la SETSI, donde se realizan las comprobaciones necesarias para la realización de una serie de medidas sobre dispositivos de comunicaciones móviles. Éstas medidas se realizan primero sobre un teléfono móvil en las frecuencias de GSM, UMTS y WIFI, en las configuraciones estipuladas por la norma; “tocando” e “inclinada 15°” comparando los valores obtenidos con los límites marcados por las normas internacionales. Por último, en este apartado se realizan ciertas medidas con otras configuraciones que no están recogidas en la norma para intentar obtener los máximos valores de SAR posibles. Después se realiza una comparación entre dos dispositivos tipo “tablet”, para ello se realizan medidas en la banda de WIFI y se comentan los resultados obtenidos, relacionado con el diseño de cada uno de ellos. Posteriormente se realiza un presupuesto de un banco de SAR, donde se detallan todos los componentes que intervienen en la realización de las medidas de SAR, pero no se incluyen en él, los costes de mantenimiento o los costes relacionados con su uso. Por último se explican las conclusiones finales desprendidas de la realización de este proyecto de fin de carrera así como la bibliografía utilizada. ABTRACT This project consists on the study of the specific absorption rate (SAR).It studies the different SAR of several wireless communications devices. It has been held in SETSI’S facilities, in its radio frecuency laboratory located in El Casar, Guadalajara, which belongs to the Ministy of Industry, Trade and Tourism. The SAR is a ratio between the electromagnetic energy accumulated in a mass of concrete material or tissue. Therefore, the SAR is defined first, which sets its parameters. Also lists the exposure limits set by international standards IEC 62209-1 and IEC 62209-2 regarding SAR. Subsequently, according to the guidelines, performing a detailed definition of a SAR measures bench, which explains each of the components in detail of the bench and involved systems prior to the realization of the extent and types of systems to perform the necessary checks, and certain parameters uncertainties. Also performed a complete process for SAR in the SETSI laboratory, located in El Casar, Guadalajara, where the necessary checks are made to carry out a serie of measures on mobile communications devices. These will be carried out first on a mobile phone at frequencies of GSM, UMTS and WiFi, in the configurations set by the standard, "touch" and "tilt 15 °" comparing the values obtained with the limits set by international standards. Finally, this section will perform certain actions with other configurations that are not included in the standard to try to get the maximum possible SAR values. Then a comparison is made between two devices, such as "tablet", this will make measurements in the band WIFI and discussed the results, related to the design of each. Subsequently, a budget of a SAR bench, detailing all components involved in SAR measures, but not included in it, maintenance costs or the costs associated with its use. Finally conclusions are explained detached from the realization of this project as well as the bibliography used on it.

Obtención de clones de alcornoque (Quercus suber L.) mediante embriogénesis somática: aplicación de medios líquidos y biorreactores en la sincronización de los procesos de desarrollo y maduración de los embriones

El alcornoque tiene un gran valor ambiental, como integrante de los ecosistemas forestales mediterráneos, e interés comercial por el valor de la bellota (alimentación del cerdo ibérico), el carbón, la madera y sobre todo por las aplicaciones industriales del corcho. Las posibilidades de mejora genética del alcornoque, como las de otras especies forestales, están limitadas por sus largos ciclos reproductivos y porque su propagación vegetativa mediante estaquillado solo es posible en estados muy juveniles. Por ello este sistema de propagación tiene muy poca, o ninguna, utilidad práctica en la mejora genética. La embriogénesis somática es la vía más apropiada para la clonación de muchas especies forestales y ha hecho posible el desarrollo a gran escala de plantaciones multivarietales de coníferas. En alcornoque es posible la regeneración completa de árboles adultos mediante embriogénesis somática. Con los protocolos actuales (en medio semisólido), los embriones se generan formando acúmulos y en la fase de multiplicación conviven embriones en distintos estados de desarrollo. Es un sistema asincrónico, con baja eficacia para la propagación en masa, que no elimina completamente las dificultades para el desarrollo de programas de mejora genética del alcornoque. En otras especies la utilización de medios líquidos ha mejorado: la sincronización, productividad de los cultivos, el manejo y reducido los costes de producción. Por ello el desarrollo de suspensiones embriogénicas de alcornoque se plantea como una vía para aumentar la eficacia de la propagación clonal a gran escala. En la presente tesis se desarrollan cultivos embriogénicos de alcornoque en medio líquido. El capítulo 3 aborda el establecimiento y mantenimiento de suspensiones, el capítulo 4 el desarrollo de una fase de proliferación en medio líquido y el capítulo 5 la utilización de sistemas de cultivo en medio líquido, estacionarios y de inmersión temporal, como vía para favorecer la maduración de los embriones somáticos. Para iniciar los cultivos en medio líquido se emplearon agregados de embriones tomados de la fase de proliferación en medio semisólido. Cuando estos agregados se inocularon directamente en medio líquido no se logró el establecimiento de las suspensiones. El establecimiento se consiguió empleando como inóculo las células y Resumen pequeños agregados embriogénicos, de tamaño comprendido entre 41 y 800 μm, desprendidas por agitación breve de los agregados de embriones. El mantenimiento se logró inoculando en baja densidad masas embriogénicas compactas de tamaño comprendido entre 0,8 y 1,2 mm. Estas suspensiones, muy heterogéneas, mantuvieron su capacidad de proliferación y de regeneración de embriones al menos durante diez subcultivos consecutivos. El protocolo de iniciación y mantenimiento, desarrollado inicialmente con un solo genotipo, fue eficaz cuando se probó sobre otros 11 genotipos de alcornoque. En la fase de proliferación se ensayaron tres tipos de envase y tres velocidades de agitación. La combinación envase × velocidad determinó el intercambio gaseoso, la disponibilidad de oxígeno y el estrés hidrodinámico. Los agregados embriogénicos de alcornoque crecieron incluso en condiciones de hipoxia no siendo la disponibilidad de oxígeno un factor limitante del crecimiento para tasas de trasferencia de oxígeno comprendidas entre 0,11 h-1 y 1,47 h-1. Por otra parte la producción de biomasa creció con el estrés hidrodinámico para valores de índice de cizalladura inferiores a 5 x 10-3 cm min-1. La mayor producción de biomasa se obtuvo con matraces Erlenmeyer de 100 ml y alta velocidad de agitación (160 rpm) mientras que la diferenciación de embriones se vio favorecida por bajas velocidades de agitación (60 rpm) asociadas con bajas disponibilidades de oxígeno. La posibilidad de madurar embriones de alcornoque en medio líquido se estudió utilizando sistemas de inmersión permanente y sistemas de inmersión temporal. En inmersión permanente no se diferenciaron embriones cotiledonares (posiblemente por hiperhidricidad). Los sistemas de inmersión temporal permitieron obtener embriones maduros en estado cotiledonar y capaces de regenerar plantas in vitro. Concentraciones de sacarosa superiores a 60 g l-1 y frecuencias de inmersión iguales o inferiores a una diaria, tuvieron efectos negativos para el desarrollo de los embriones somáticos. En los sistemas de inmersión temporal los parámetros físico-químicos del medio de cultivo se mantuvieron estables y no se observó ninguna limitación de nutrientes. No obstante, estos sistemas se vieron afectados por la evaporación que generó el flujo de aire necesario para desplazar el líquido en cada periodo de inmersión. Abstract ABSTRACT Cork oak is one of the most important tree species of the Mediterranean ecosystem. Besides its high environmental value has a great economic interest due to the sustainable production of acorns (to feed the Iberian pig) charcoal, timber and cork, which is a renewable natural product with various technological applications. As happens with other forest species, cork oak genetic improvement programs are limited by their long life cycles and because vegetative propagation by cuttings it´s only possible in very juvenile plants. Hence this propagation system is useless or has little practical use for breeding cork oak. Plant regeneration by somatic embryogenesis is the most suitable way for cloning many forest species, and it is the enabling technology which has allowed the establishment of large-scale conifer multi-varietal plantations. Clonal plant regeneration of mature cork oak trees can be achieved through somatic embryogenesis. Somatic embryos at different stages of development and forming clusters are produced during the multiplication phase with current protocols (using semisolid medium). This is an asynchronous low-efficient process not suitable for mass propagation, and therefore it does not solve the difficulties presented by cork oak breeding programs. Culture in liquid medium has been used with other species to improve: synchronization, yield, handling, and to reduce production costs. Thus the development of cork oak embryogenic suspension cultures is envisaged as a way to increase the efficiency of large scale clonal propagation. The thesis herein develops cork oak embryogenic cultures in liquid medium. In chapter 3 establishment and maintenance of suspension cultures are developed, chapter 4 studies proliferation phase in liquid medium and chapter 5 considers the use of different systems of culture in liquid medium, both stationary and temporary immersion, as a way to promote somatic embryos maturation. Clusters of embryos taken from proliferating cultures on semisolid medium were used to initiate the cultures in liquid medium. When these clusters were inoculated directly in liquid medium establishment of suspension cultures was not executed. However using, as initial inoculum, cells and cell aggregates with a size between 41 and 800 μm detached from these clusters of embryos, subjected to a brief shaking, suspension cultures could be established. Suspension maintenance was achieved by inoculating compact embryogenic Abstract clumps with a size between 0.8 and 1.2 mm at low density. The suspension cultures, very heterogeneous, retained both their proliferation and embryo regeneration capacity for at least ten consecutive subcultures. The initiation and maintenance protocol, initially developed with a single genotype, was effective when tested on 11 additional genotypes of cork oak. In proliferation phase three types of vessels and three different levels of agitation were assayed. The combination vessel × orbiting speed determined gas exchange, oxygen availability and hydrodynamic stress. Cork oak embryogenic aggregates grew even under hypoxia conditions; oxygen availability at transfer rates between 0.11 and 1.47 h-1 was not a limiting factor for growth. Furthermore the biomass production was increased with hydrodynamic stress when shear rate values were of less than 5 x 10-3 cm min-1. The highest biomass production was obtained with 100 ml Erlenmeyer flask and high stirring speed (160 rpm) while the differentiation of embryos was favored by low agitation speeds (60 rpm) associated with low oxygen availability. The possibility to mature cork oak somatic embryos in liquid medium was studied using both permanent immersion systems and temporary immersion systems. Cotyledonary embryos did not differentiate in permanent immersion conditions (probably due to hyperhydricity). Temporary immersion systems allowed obtaining mature cotyledonary embryos, which were able to regenerate plants in vitro. Sucrose concentrations above 60 g l-1 and immersion frequencies equal to or lower than one each 24 h had negative effects on somatic embryo development. Physicochemical parameters of the culture medium in temporary immersion systems were stable and showed no limitation of nutrients. However, these systems were affected by the evaporation generated by the airflow necessary to relocate the medium at each immersion period.

Use of a scrapped ship as a floating breakwater for shore protection

The purpose of this research is to assess the effectiveness of a ship used as a detached floating breakwater for coastal protection and forming salients of sand or tombolos. Floating breakwaters have been extensively used as port or coastal protection structures and display advantages in terms of construction and ecology, amongst others. However, the greatest problem these structures present is the limited range of wave heights and periods for which they are really effective. Furthermore, ships may be considered as floating structures which, used as breakwaters, would keep the advantages of floating breakwaters and would increase their range of applicability. The possibility of using ships at the conclusion of their useful life for this purpose would also involve greater economic and environmental advantages. Tests were carried out to assess the ship’s effectiveness as a detached floating breakwater using a scaled down physical model to determine the vessel’s transmission coefficient (Kt) as to regular waves with significant periods of 5 sec to 12 sec and significant wave heights of 1.5 m to 4 m at depths from 20 m to 35 m. The ship proves effective for waves up to 4 m significant height and significant periods up to 9 sec. Hanson and Kraus and Pilarzyk’s analytical models, which take transmission coefficients into account, were used to analyse the shore’s response to the breakwater protection. The results obtained show that salients form for waves with periods between 6 sec and 9 sec. It is also concluded that the depths tested are far different from the more usual shallow water involved in constructing detached breakwaters and the shore’s response is therefore scarce.

Habitar lo irreal. aproximaciones a una arquitectónica de los mundos virtuales

Lo virtual es el lugar donde todo empieza, el germen de la imaginación productiva, un ámbito de pulsiones inaugurales y preexistencias sin forma donde todo convive, a la espera de ser diferenciado. Lo virtual es el sitio donde nacen las primeras exploraciones de cualquier acto de concepción, incluida la creación artística o el proyectar arquitectónico. Sin embargo, en las últimas tres décadas de revolución digital, el término ha sido utilizado de forma abusiva para referirse a todo tipo de entornos simulados informáticamente, es decir, a ficciones cerradas, programadas, controladas por el software y sus rutinas, radicalmente actualizadas, acabadas, completas, formalizadas. Paradójicamente, lo virtual ha servido para nombrar construcciones profundamente anti-virtuales. La telemática está propiciando el acceso del ser humano a un nuevo tipo de irrealidad cotidiana sustentada en prácticas espaciales cada vez menos vinculadas con la física y la biología. Esta condición fantasmagórica del habitar digital exige nuevos espacios de diálogo entre arquitectura y tecnología que se centren en el hecho imaginario. Para ello esta tesis propone —a partir de la recuperación del término griego arquitectónica— llevar el alcance de la disciplina hasta el hecho global del habitar. Y, al mismo tiempo, devolver al adjetivo virtual su auténtico significado preliminar, entendiendo que los verdaderos mundos virtuales no pueden simular nada, representar nada, formalizar nada, porque ellos son el origen infinito y amorfo de todo mundo. ABSTRACT The virtual is where it all starts, the seed of productive imagination, an area of inaugural impulses and formless preexistences that beat together, waiting to be differentiated. The virtual is the birthplace of any creative exploration, including those of the architectural project. However, in the last three decades of digital revolution, the term has been mostly misused to refer to all types of computer simulated environments; shut, finished, complete, formalized, radically actualized fictions controlled by software routines. Paradoxically, the virtual has been giving name to profoundly anti-virtual constructions. Telematics is allowing humans to access to a new kind of unreality, based on everyday spatial practices that are increasingly detached from physics and biology. This spectral condition of the digital living demands new dialectics between architecture and technology, focused on the imaginary. This thesis proposes — beginning by recovering the Greek word architectonics— to extend the scope of the discipline beyond edification to the overall fact of inhabiting. And, at the same time, to return to the adjective virtual its authentic preliminary meaning, realizing that the true virtual worlds cannot simulate, represent or formalize anything because they are the amorphous and endless source of every world.

Estudio en modelo físico a escala reducida de la viabilidad del empleo de buques fondeados como diques flotantes para abrigo portuario y defensa de costas

Los diques flotantes son estructuras que atenúan la energía del oleaje fundamentalmente por reflexión y turbulencia. Aunque presentan importantes ventajas en términos constructivos y medioambientales, su efectividad es limitada y en la práctica sólo se emplean en condiciones climáticas propias de zonas con oleajes poco energéticos. Por otro lado, el buque es la estructura flotante por excelencia y su empleo para el abrigo portuario y costero en determinadas situaciones puede aportar las ventajas propias de los diques flotantes, al tiempo que ampliar el rango de oleajes frente a los que estas estructuras son efectivas. El propósito de esta Tesis Doctoral es evaluar la viabilidad del empleo de buques fondeados como diques flotantes para el abrigo portuario y costero. Para ello, se han realizado ensayos en modelo físico a escala reducida en un canal de oleaje del Centro de Estudios de Puertos y Costas (CEPYC), con el objeto de determinar los coeficientes de transmisión (Ct), reflexión (Cr) y disipación (Cd) de barcos de diversas tipologías y dimensiones, sometidos a diferentes oleajes en distintas situaciones de carga, fondeo y profundidad del emplazamiento. La efectividad de los buques empleados en los ensayos se ha determinado mediante el análisis de dichos coeficientes y su variación con la altura de ola y el periodo de los oleajes incidentes. Además, se han registrado las fuerzas existentes en las cadenas de fondeo con objeto de comprobar la viabilidad del mismo y facilitar una estimación del diámetro de las cadenas que serían necesarias en cada situación. Posteriormente, se han aplicado los resultados obtenidos en los ensayos en modelo físico reducido a dos situaciones de abrigo portuario y costero. La primera aplicación consiste en el empleo de buques como defensa temporal en fases constructivas por medios marítimos, partiendo de la hipótesis de que, actuando como diques flotantes, puede proteger la zona de la obra y ampliar las ventanas temporales de periodos de actividad en obra marítima. Las actividades que se han analizado son las de dragado de fondos, vertidos de material granular y transporte y fondeo de cajones flotantes para diques y muelles. La segunda aplicación estudiada es el empleo de buques para la protección costera y la formación de salientes y tómbolos. Los coeficientes de transmisión obtenidos se han introducido en formulaciones analíticas que permiten prever la evolución de la costa frente a la protección procurada por el buque actuando como dique flotante exento. Finalmente se han redactado las conclusiones de la investigación y se han propuesto nuevas líneas de investigación relacionadas con esta Tesis Doctoral. Floating breakwaters are structures which attenuate wave energy mainly by reflection and turbulence. They display advantages in terms of construction and ecology, amongst others. However, their use is restricted in practice to certain areas with good climatic conditions and low energy waves. Moreover, ships are the most common floating structures and their use for port and coastal shelter in certain situations could widen the range of applicability in addition to the rest of advantages of floating breakwaters. The purpose of this research is to assess the feasibility of ships anchored as floating breakwaters for port and coastal protection. To that end, tests in a scaled down physical model have been conducted in a wave flume in the Centre of Port and Coastal Studies (CEPYC), in order to determine the transmission (Ct), reflection (Cr) and dissipation (Cd) coefficients of ships of diverse types and dimensions, under different wave, load, anchoring and depth conditions. The effectiveness of the several ships used in the tests has been determined by analyzing these coefficients and their variation with the wave height and period of the incident waves. In addition, the existing forces in the anchor chains have been registered to verify the feasibility of the anchoring systems, as well as to provide an estimation of the diameter of the chains that would be needed in each situation. Subsequently, the results of the tests have been applied to two situations of port and coastal protection. The first one is the use of ships as a temporary defense for maritime works with construction phases by maritime means, on the assumption that, acting as floating breakwaters, they can protect the work area and increase the time windows of periods of activity in maritime works. Dredging, dumping of granular material and transport and positioning of big concrete caissons for docks and breakwaters were the activities analyzed. The second situation is the use of ships for coastal protection and forming salients of sand or tombolos. Some analytical formulations which take into account the transmission coefficients from the tests have been used to predict the evolution of the coastline under the protection given by the ships acting as detached floating breakwaters. Finally, the conclusions of the research have been addressed and the proposal of new lines of work related to the topic has been made.

Desarrollo de un modelo de predimensionado de costes de construcción en el proyecto arquitectónico

El objetivo de la presente investigación es el desarrollo de un modelo de cálculo rápido, eficiente y preciso, para la estimación de los costes finales de construcción, en las fases preliminares del proyecto arquitectónico. Se trata de una herramienta a utilizar durante el proceso de elaboración de estudios previos, anteproyecto y proyecto básico, no siendo por tanto preciso para calcular el “predimensionado de costes” disponer de la total definición grafica y literal del proyecto. Se parte de la hipótesis de que en la aplicación práctica del modelo no se producirán desviaciones superiores al 10 % sobre el coste final de la obra proyectada. Para ello se formulan en el modelo de predimensionado cinco niveles de estimación de costes, de menor a mayor definición conceptual y gráfica del proyecto arquitectónico. Los cinco niveles de cálculo son: dos que toman como referencia los valores “exógenos” de venta de las viviendas (promoción inicial y promoción básica) y tres basados en cálculos de costes “endógenos” de la obra proyectada (estudios previos, anteproyecto y proyecto básico). El primer nivel de estimación de carácter “exógeno” (nivel .1), se calcula en base a la valoración de mercado de la promoción inmobiliaria y a su porcentaje de repercusión de suelo sobre el valor de venta de las viviendas. El quinto nivel de valoración, también de carácter “exógeno” (nivel .5), se calcula a partir del contraste entre el valor externo básico de mercado, los costes de construcción y los gastos de promoción estimados de la obra proyectada. Este contraste entre la “repercusión del coste de construcción” y el valor de mercado, supone una innovación respecto a los modelos de predimensionado de costes existentes, como proceso metodológico de verificación y validación extrínseca, de la precisión y validez de las estimaciones resultantes de la aplicación práctica del modelo, que se denomina Pcr.5n (Predimensionado costes de referencia con .5niveles de cálculo según fase de definición proyectual / ideación arquitectónica). Los otros tres niveles de predimensionado de costes de construcción “endógenos”, se estiman mediante cálculos analíticos internos por unidades de obra y cálculos sintéticos por sistemas constructivos y espacios funcionales, lo que se lleva a cabo en las etapas iniciales del proyecto correspondientes a estudios previos (nivel .2), anteproyecto (nivel .3) y proyecto básico (nivel .4). Estos cálculos teóricos internos son finalmente evaluados y validados mediante la aplicación práctica del modelo en obras de edificación residencial, de las que se conocen sus costes reales de liquidación final de obra. Según va evolucionando y se incrementa el nivel de definición y desarrollo del proyecto, desde los estudios previos hasta el proyecto básico, el cálculo se va perfeccionando en su nivel de eficiencia y precisión de la estimación, según la metodología aplicada: [aproximaciones sucesivas en intervalos finitos], siendo la hipótesis básica como anteriormente se ha avanzado, lograr una desviación máxima de una décima parte en el cálculo estimativo del predimensionado del coste real de obra. El cálculo del coste de ejecución material de la obra, se desarrolla en base a parámetros cúbicos funcionales “tridimensionales” del espacio proyectado y parámetros métricos constructivos “bidimensionales” de la envolvente exterior de cubierta/fachada y de la huella del edificio sobre el terreno. Los costes funcionales y constructivos se ponderan en cada fase del proceso de cálculo con sus parámetros “temáticos/específicos” de gestión (Pg), proyecto (Pp) y ejecución (Pe) de la concreta obra presupuestada, para finalmente estimar el coste de construcción por contrata, como resultado de incrementar al coste de ejecución material el porcentaje correspondiente al parámetro temático/especifico de la obra proyectada. El modelo de predimensionado de costes de construcción Pcr.5n, será una herramienta de gran interés y utilidad en el ámbito profesional, para la estimación del coste correspondiente al Proyecto Básico previsto en el marco técnico y legal de aplicación. Según el Anejo I del Código Técnico de la Edificación (CTE), es de obligado cumplimiento que el proyecto básico contenga una “Valoración aproximada de la ejecución material de la obra proyectada por capítulos”, es decir , que el Proyecto Básico ha de contener al menos un “presupuesto aproximado”, por capítulos, oficios ó tecnologías. El referido cálculo aproximado del presupuesto en el Proyecto Básico, necesariamente se ha de realizar mediante la técnica del predimensionado de costes, dado que en esta fase del proyecto arquitectónico aún no se dispone de cálculos de estructura, planos de acondicionamiento e instalaciones, ni de la resolución constructiva de la envolvente, por cuanto no se han desarrollado las especificaciones propias del posterior proyecto de ejecución. Esta estimación aproximada del coste de la obra, es sencilla de calcular mediante la aplicación práctica del modelo desarrollado, y ello tanto para estudiantes como para profesionales del sector de la construcción. Como se contiene y justifica en el presente trabajo, la aplicación práctica del modelo para el cálculo de costes en las fases preliminares del proyecto, es rápida y certera, siendo de sencilla aplicación tanto en vivienda unifamiliar (aisladas y pareadas), como en viviendas colectivas (bloques y manzanas). También, el modelo es de aplicación en el ámbito de la valoración inmobiliaria, tasaciones, análisis de viabilidad económica de promociones inmobiliarias, estimación de costes de obras terminadas y en general, cuando no se dispone del proyecto de ejecución y sea preciso calcular los costes de construcción de las obras proyectadas. Además, el modelo puede ser de aplicación para el chequeo de presupuestos calculados por el método analítico tradicional (estado de mediciones pormenorizadas por sus precios unitarios y costes descompuestos), tanto en obras de iniciativa privada como en obras promovidas por las Administraciones Públicas. Por último, como líneas abiertas a futuras investigaciones, el modelo de “predimensionado costes de referencia 5 niveles de cálculo”, se podría adaptar y aplicar para otros usos y tipologías diferentes a la residencial, como edificios de equipamientos y dotaciones públicas, valoración de edificios históricos, obras de urbanización interior y exterior de parcela, proyectos de parques y jardines, etc….. Estas lineas de investigación suponen trabajos paralelos al aquí desarrollado, y que a modo de avance parcial se recogen en las comunicaciones presentadas en los Congresos internacionales Scieconf/Junio 2013, Rics‐Cobra/Septiembre 2013 y en el IV Congreso nacional de patología en la edificación‐Ucam/Abril 2014. ABSTRACT The aim of this research is to develop a fast, efficient and accurate calculation model to estimate the final costs of construction, during the preliminary stages of the architectural project. It is a tool to be used during the preliminary study process, drafting and basic project. It is not therefore necessary to have the exact, graphic definition of the project in order to be able to calculate the cost‐scaling. It is assumed that no deviation 10% higher than the final cost of the projected work will occur during the implementation. To that purpose five levels of cost estimation are formulated in the scaling model, from a lower to a higher conceptual and graphic definition of the architectural project. The five calculation levels are: two that take as point of reference the ”exogenous” values of house sales (initial development and basic development), and three based on calculation of endogenous costs (preliminary study, drafting and basic project). The first ”exogenous” estimation level (level.1) is calculated over the market valuation of real estate development and the proportion the cost of land has over the value of the houses. The fifth level of valuation, also an ”exogenous” one (level.5) is calculated from the contrast between the basic external market value, the construction costs, and the estimated development costs of the projected work. This contrast between the ”repercussions of construction costs” and the market value is an innovation regarding the existing cost‐scaling models, as a methodological process of extrinsic verification and validation, of the accuracy and validity of the estimations obtained from the implementation of the model, which is called Pcr.5n (reference cost‐scaling with .5calculation levels according to the stage of project definition/ architectural conceptualization) The other three levels of “endogenous” construction cost‐scaling are estimated from internal analytical calculations by project units and synthetic calculations by construction systems and functional spaces. This is performed during the initial stages of the project corresponding to preliminary study process (level.2), drafting (level.3) and basic project (level.4). These theoretical internal calculations are finally evaluated and validated via implementation of the model in residential buildings, whose real costs on final payment of the works are known. As the level of definition and development of the project evolves, from preliminary study to basic project, the calculation improves in its level of efficiency and estimation accuracy, following the applied methodology: [successive approximations at finite intervals]. The basic hypothesis as above has been made, achieving a maximum deviation of one tenth, in the estimated calculation of the true cost of predimensioning work. The cost calculation for material execution of the works is developed from functional “three‐dimensional” cubic parameters for the planned space and constructive “two dimensional” metric parameters for the surface that envelopes around the facade and the building’s footprint on the plot. The functional and building costs are analyzed at every stage of the process of calculation with “thematic/specific” parameters of management (Pg), project (Pp) and execution (Pe) of the estimated work in question, and finally the cost of contractual construction is estimated, as a consequence of increasing the cost of material execution with the percentage pertaining to the thematic/specific parameter of the projected work. The construction cost‐scaling Pcr.5n model will be a useful tool of great interest in the professional field to estimate the cost of the Basic Project as prescribed in the technical and legal framework of application. According to the appendix of the Technical Building Code (CTE), it is compulsory that the basic project contains an “approximate valuation of the material execution of the work, projected by chapters”, that is, that the basic project must contain at least an “approximate estimate” by chapter, trade or technology. This approximate estimate in the Basic Project is to be performed through the cost‐scaling technique, given that structural calculations, reconditioning plans and definitive contruction details of the envelope are still not available at this stage of the architectural project, insofar as specifications pertaining to the later project have not yet been developed. This approximate estimate of the cost of the works is easy to calculate through the implementation of the given model, both for students and professionals of the building sector. As explained and justified in this work, the implementation of the model for cost‐scaling during the preliminary stage is fast and accurate, as well as easy to apply both in single‐family houses (detached and semi‐detached) and collective housing (blocks). The model can also be applied in the field of the real‐estate valuation, official appraisal, analysis of the economic viability of real estate developments, estimate of the cost of finished projects and, generally, when an implementation project is not available and it is necessary to calculate the building costs of the projected works. The model can also be applied to check estimates calculated by the traditional analytical method (state of measurements broken down into price per unit cost details), both in private works and those promoted by Public Authorities. Finally, as potential lines for future research, the “five levels of calculation cost‐scaling model”, could be adapted and applied to purposes and typologies other than the residential one, such as service buildings and public facilities, valuation of historical buildings, interior and exterior development works, park and garden planning, etc… These lines of investigation are parallel to this one and, by way of a preview, can be found in the dissertations given in the International Congresses Scieconf/June 2013, Rics‐Cobra/September 2013 and in the IV Congress on building pathology ‐Ucam/April 2014.

Estudio geotécnico para vivienda unifamiliar en terreno expansivo

El objetivo de este proyecto es realizar un estudio geotécnico para la edificación de una vivienda unifamiliar sobre un terreno expansivo en Gata de Gorgos (Alicante). El edificio consta de 3 plantas y una superficie construida de 220 mP. Se realizaron los trabajos de campo, se ensayaron en el laboratorio las muestras obtenidas y se definieron los diferentes niveles geotécnicos. Existiendo un riesgo por expansividad en uno de los niveles, se concluyo con la solución de cimentación mediante pozos, realizándose los cálculos necesarios para el posterior proyecto de la obra. ABSTRACT The object of this project is to realize a geotechnical study for the construction of a detached house over expansive terrain at Gata de Gorgos (Alicante). The building consists of three floors with a total area of 220 mP. Fieldworks were accomplished, obtained samples were tested in the laboratory and the different geotechnical levels were defined. Due to a risk of expansiveness in one of the levels, foundation solution will be done through wells. Finally, there were realized the calculations needed for the project of subsequent building.