Evaluation of the mechanical properties of self compacting concrete using current estimating models. Estimating the modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and modulus of rupture of self compacting concrete

This study includes an analysis of the applicability of current models used for estimating the mechanical properties of conventional concrete to self-compacting concrete. The mechanical properties evaluated are: modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and modulus of rupture. An extensive database which included the dosifications and the mechanical properties of 627 mixtures from 138 different references, was used. The models considered are: ACI, EC-2, NZS 3101:2006 (New Zealand code) and the CSA A23.3-04 (Canadian code). The precision in estimating the modulus of elasticity and tensile strength is acceptable for all models; however, all models are less precise in estimating the modulus of rupture.

Relationship between fibre orientation and tensile strength of natural collagen membranes for heart valve leaflets

Heart valve prostheses are used to replace native heart valves which that are damaged because of congenital diseases or due to ageing. Biological prostheses made of bovine pericardium are similar to native valves and do not require any anticoagulation treatment, but are less durable than mechanical prostheses and usually fail by tearing. Researches are oriented in improving the resistance and durability of biological heart valve prostheses in order to increase their life expectancy. To understand the mechanical behaviour of bovine pericardium and relate it to its microstructure (mainly collagen fibres concentration and orientation) uniaxial tensile tests have been performed on a model material made of collagen fibres. Small Angle Light Scattering (SALS) has been also used to characterize the microstructure without damaging the material. Results with the model material allowed us to obtain the orientation of the fibres, relating the microstructure to mechanical performance

Spalling uniaxial strength of Al2O3 at high strain rates

In this article research into the uniaxial tensile strength of Al2O3 monolithic ceramic is presented. The experimental procedure of the spalling of long bars is investigated from different approaches. This method is used to obtain the tensile strength at high strain rates under uniaxial conditions. Different methodologies proposed by several authors are used to obtain the tensile strength. The hypotheses needed for the experimental set-up are also checked, and the requirements of the set-up and the variables are also studied by means of numerical simulations. The research shows that the shape of the projectile is crucial to achieve successfully tests results. An experimental campaign has been carried out including high speed video and a digital image correlation system to obtain the tensile strength of alumina. Finally, a comparison of the test results provided by three different methods proposed by different authors is presented. The tensile strength obtained from the three such methods on the same specimens provides contrasting results. Mean values vary from one method to another but the trends are similar for two of the methods. The third method gives less scatter, though the mean values obtained are lower and do not follow the same trend as the other methods for the different specimens.

Effect of the temperature, strain rate and microstructure on flow and fracture characteristics of Ti-45Al-2Nb-2Mn+0.8vol.% TiB2 XD alloy

A series of quasi-static and dynamic tensile tests at varying temperatures were carried out to determine the mechanical behaviour of Ti-45Al-2Nb-2Mn+0.8vol.% TiB2 XD as-HIPed alloy. The temperature for the tests ranged from room temperature to 850  ∘C. The effect of the temperature on the ultimate tensile strength, as expected, was almost negligible within the selected temperature range. Nevertheless, the plastic flow suffered some softening because of the temperature. This alloy presents a relatively low ductility; thus, a low tensile strain to failure. The dynamic tests were performed in a Split Hopkinson Tension Bar, showing an increase of the ultimate tensile strength due to the strain rate hardening effect. Johnson-Cook constitutive relation was used to model the plastic flow. A post-testing microstructural of the specimens revealed an inhomogeneous structure, consisting of lamellar α2 + γ structure and γ phase equiaxed grains in the centre, and a fully lamellar structure on the rest. The assessment of the duplex-fully lamellar area ratio showed a clear relationship between the microstructure and the fracture behaviour.

In situ analysis of the tensile deformation mechanisms in extruded Mg–1Mn–1Nd (wt%)

An extruded Mg–1Mn–1Nd (wt%) (MN11) alloy was tested in tension in an SEM at temperatures of 323K (50°C), 423 K (150°C), and 523 K (250°C) to analyse the local deformation mechanisms through in situ observations. Electron backscatter diffraction was performed before and after the deformation. It was found that the tensile strength decreased with increasing temperature, and the relative activity of different twinning and slip systems was quantified. At 323K (50C), extension twinning, basal, prismatic (a) and pyramidal (c+a) slip were active. Much less extension twinning was observed at 423K (150ºC) while basal slip and prismatic (a) slip were dominant and presented similar activities. At 523K (250ºC), twinning was not observed, and basal slip controlled the deformation.

Fisuración y deformaciones en tabiquerías

A diferencia de otros parámetros, el efecto de la existencia de huecos en la aparición y desarrollo de los procesos de fisuración en los paños de fábrica no ha sido considerado por las distintas normativas existentes en la actualidad. En nuestros días se emplea una variada gama de tipologías de elementos de cerramiento para realizar las particiones en las obras de edificación, cada una de ellas con características mecánicas diferentes y distinta metodología de ejecución, siendo de aplicación la misma normativa relativa al cálculo y control de las deformaciones. Tal y como expresamos en el Capitulo 1, en el que se analiza el Estado del Conocimiento, los códigos actuales determinan de forma analítica la flecha probable que se alcanza en los elementos portantes estructurales bajo diferentes condiciones de servicio. Las distintas propuestas que existen respecto para la limitación de la flecha activa, una vez realizado el cálculo de las deformaciones, bien por el método de Branson ó mediante los métodos de integración de curvaturas, no contemplan como parámetro a considerar en la limitación de la flecha activa la existencia y tipología de huecos en un paño de fábrica soportado por la estructura. Sin embargo se intuye y podríamos afirmar que una discontinuidad en cualquier elemento sometido a esfuerzos tiene influencia en el estado tensional del mismo. Si consideramos que, de forma general, los procesos de fisuración se producen al superarse la resistencia a tracción de material constitutivo de la fábrica soportada, es claro que la variación tensional inducida por la existencia de huecos ha de tener cierta influencia en la aparición y desarrollo de los procesos de fisuración en los elementos de partición o de cerramiento de las obras de edificación. En los Capítulos 2 y 3 tras justificar la necesidad de realizar una investigación encaminada a confirmar la relación entre la existencia de huecos en un paño de fábrica y el desarrollo de procesos de fisuración en el mismo, se establece este aspecto como principal Objetivo y se expone la Metodología para su análisis. Hemos definido y justificado en el Capítulo 4 el modelo de cálculo que hemos utilizado para determinar las deformaciones y los procesos de fisuración que se producen en los casos a analizar, en los que se han considerado como variables: los valores de la luz del modelo, el estado de fisuración de los elementos portantes, los efectos de la fluencia y el porcentaje de transmisión de cargas desde el forjado superior al paño de fábrica en estudio. Además se adoptan dos valores de la resistencia a tracción de las fábricas, 0.75MPa y 1.00MPa. La capacidad de representar la fisuración, así como la robustez y fiabilidad ha condicionado y justificado la selección del programa de elementos finitos que se ha utilizado para realizar los cálculos. Aprovechando la posibilidad de reproducir de forma ajustada las características introducidas para cada parámetro, hemos planteado y realizado un análisis paramétricos que considera 360 cálculos iterativos, de cuya exposición es objeto el Capítulo 5, para obtener una serie representativa de resultados sobre los que se realizará el análisis posterior. En el Capítulo 6, de análisis de los resultados, hemos estudiado los valores de deformaciones y estados de fisuración obtenidos para los casos analizados. Hemos determinado la influencia que tiene la presencia de huecos en la aparición de los procesos de fisuración y en las deformaciones que se producen en las diferentes configuraciones estructurales. Las conclusiones que hemos obtenido tras analizar los resultados, incluidas en el Capítulo 7, no dejan lugar a dudas: la presencia, la posición y la tipología de los huecos en los elementos de fábricas soportadas sobre estructuras deformables son factores determinantes respecto de la fisuración y pueden tener influencia en las deformaciones que constituyen la flecha activa del elemento, lo que obliga a plantear una serie de recomendaciones frente al proyecto y frente a la reglamentación técnica. La investigación desarrollada para esta Tesis Doctoral y la metodología aplicada para su desarrollo abre nuevas líneas de estudio, que se esbozan en el Capítulo 8, para el análisis de otros aspectos que no han sido cubiertos por esta investigación a fin de mejorar las limitaciones que deberían establecerse para los Estados Límite de Servicio de Deformaciones correspondientes a las estructuras de edificación. SUMMARY. Unlike other parameters, the effect of the existence of voids in the arising and development of cracking processes in the masonry walls has not been considered by current Codes. Nowadays, a huge variety of enclosure elements types is used to execute partitions in buildings, each one with different mechanical characteristics and different execution methodology, being applied the same rules concerning deflection calculation and control. As indicated in Chapter 1, which analyzes the State of Art, current codes analytically determine the deflection likely to be achieved in structural supporting elements under different service conditions. The different proposals that exist related to live deflection limitation, once performed deformations calculation, either by Branson´s method or considering curvatures integration methods, do not consider in deflection limitation the existence and typology of voids in a masonry wall structured supported. But is sensed and it can be affirmed that a discontinuity in any element under stress influences the stress state of it. If we consider that, in general, cracking processes occur when masonry material tensile strength is exceeded, it is clear that tension variation induced by the existence of voids must have some influence on the emergence and development of cracking processes in enclosure elements of building works. In Chapters 2 and 3, after justifying the need for an investigation to confirm the relationship between the existence of voids in a masonry wall and the development of cracking process in it, is set as the main objective and it is shown the analysis Methodology. We have defined and justified in Chapter 4 the calculation model used to determine the deformation and cracking processes that occur in the cases analyzed, in which were considered as variables: model span values, bearing elements cracking state, creep effects and load transmission percentage from the upper floor to the studied masonry wall. In addition, two masonry tensile strength values 0.75MPa and 1.00MPa have been considered. The cracking consideration ability, robustness and reliability has determined and justified the selection of the finite element program that was used for the calculations. Taking advantage of the ability of accurately consider the characteristics introduced for each parameter, we have performed a parametric analyses that considers 360 iterative calculations, whose results are included in Chapter 5, in order to obtain a representative results set that will be analyzed later. In Chapter 6, results analysis, we studied the obtained values of deformation and cracking configurations for the cases analyzed. We determined the influence of the voids presence in the occurrence of cracking processes and deformations in different structural configurations. The conclusions we have obtained after analyzing the results, included in Chapter 7, leave no doubt: the presence, position and type of holes in masonry elements supported on deformable structures are determinative of cracking and can influence deformations which are the element live deflection, making necessary to raise a number of recommendations related to project and technical regulation. The research undertaken for this Doctoral Thesis and the applied methodology for its development opens up new lines of study, outlined in Chapter 8, for the analysis of other aspects that are not covered by this research, in order to improve the limitations that should be established for Deflections Serviceability Limit States related to building structures.

Estudio de la redistribución tensional en la interfase frp-hormigón

El uso de materiales compuestos para el refuerzo, reparación y rehabilitación de estructuras de hormigón se ha convertido en una técnica muy utilizada en la última década. Con independencia de la técnica del refuerzo, uno de los principales condicionantes del diseño es el fallo de la adherencia entre el hormigón y el material compuesto, atribuida generalmente a las tensiones en la interfaz de estos materiales. Las propiedades mecánicas del hormigón y de los materiales compuestos son muy distintas. Los materiales compuestos comúnmente utilizados en ingeniería civil poseen alta resistencia a tracción y tienen un comportamiento elástico y lineal hasta la rotura, lo cual, en contraste con el ampliamente conocido comportamiento del hormigón, genera una clara incompatibilidad para soportar esfuerzos de forma conjunta. Esta incompatibilidad conduce a fallos relacionados con el despegue del material compuesto del sustrato de hormigón. En vigas de hormigón reforzadas a flexión o a cortante, el despegue del material compuesto es un fenómeno que frecuentemente condiciona la capacidad portante del elemento. Existen dos zonas potenciales de iniciación del despegue: los extremos y la zona entre fisuras de flexión o de flexión-cortante. En el primer caso, la experiencia a través de los últimos años ha demostrado que se puede evitar prolongando el refuerzo hasta los apoyos o mediante el empleo de algún sistema de anclaje. Sin embargo, las recomendaciones para evitar el segundo caso de despegue aún se encuentran lejos de poder prever el fallo de forma eficiente. La necesidad de medir la adherencia experimentalmente de materiales FRP adheridos al hormigón ha dado lugar a desarrollar diversos métodos por la comunidad de investigadores. De estas campañas experimentales surgieron modelos para el pronóstico de la resistencia de adherencia, longitud efectiva y relación tensión-deslizamiento. En la presente tesis se propone un ensayo de beam-test, similar al utilizado para medir la adherencia de barras de acero, para determinar las características de adherencia del FRP al variar la resistencia del hormigón y el espesor del adhesivo. A la vista de los resultados, se considera que este ensayo puede ser utilizado para investigar diferentes tipos de adhesivos y otros métodos de aplicación, dado que representa con mayor realidad el comportamiento en vigas reforzadas. Los resultados experimentales se trasladan a la comprobación del fallo por despegue en la región de fisuras de flexión o flexión cortante en vigas de hormigón presentando buena concordancia. Los resultados condujeron a la propuesta de que la limitación de la deformación constituye una alternativa simple y eficiente para prever el citado modo de fallo. Con base en las vigas analizadas, se propone una nueva expresión para el cálculo de la limitación de la deformación del laminado y se lleva a cabo una comparación entre los modelos existentes mediante un análisis estadístico para evaluar su precisión. Abstract The use of composite materials for strengthening, repairing or rehabilitating concrete structures has become more and more popular in the last ten years. Irrespective of the type of strengthening used, design is conditioned, among others, by concrete-composite bond failure, normally attributed to stresses at the interface between these two materials. The mechanical properties of concrete and composite materials are very different. Composite materials commonly used in civil engineering possess high tensile strength (both static and long term) and they are linear elastic to failure, which, in contrast to the widely known behavior of concrete, there is a clear incompatibility which leads to bond-related failures. Bond failure in the composite material in bending- or shear-strengthened beams often controls bearing capacity of the strengthened member. Debonding failure of RC beams strengthened in bending by externally-bonded composite laminates takes place either, at the end (plate end debonding) or at flexure or flexure-shear cracks (intermediate crack debonding). In the first case, the experience over the past years has shown that this can be avoided by extending laminates up to the supports or by using an anchoring system. However, recommendations for the second case are still considered far from predicting failure efficiently. The need to experimentally measure FRP bonding to concrete has induced the scientific community to develop test methods for that purpose. Experimental campaigns, in turn, have given rise to models for predicting bond strength, effective length and the stress-slip relationship. The beam-type test proposed and used in this thesis to determine the bonding characteristics of FRP at varying concrete strengths and adhesive thicknesses was similar to the test used for measuring steel reinforcement to concrete bonding conditions. In light of the findings, this test was deemed to be usable to study different types of adhesives and application methods, since it reflects the behavior of FRP in strengthened beams more accurately than the procedures presently in place. Experimental results are transferred to the verification of peeling-off at flexure or flexure-shear cracks, presenting a good general agreement. Findings led to the conclusion that the strain limitation of laminate produces accurate predictions of intermediate crack debonding. A new model for strain limitation is proposed. Finally, a comprehensive evaluation based on a statistical analysis among existing models is carried out in order to assess their accuracy.

Mechanical behaviour and rupture of normal and pathological human ascending aortic wall

The mechanical properties of aortic wall, both healthy and pathological, are needed in order to develop and improve diagnostic and interventional criteria, and for the development of mechanical models to assess arterial integrity. This study focuses on the mechanical behaviour and rupture conditions of the human ascending aorta and its relationship with age and pathologies. Fresh ascending aortic specimens harvested from 23 healthy donors, 12 patients with bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) and 14 with aneurysm were tensile-tested in vitro under physiological conditions. Tensile strength, stretch at failure and elbow stress were measured. The obtained results showed that age causes a major reduction in the mechanical parameters of healthy ascending aortic tissue, and that no significant differences are found between the mechanical strength of aneurysmal or BAV aortic specimens and the corresponding age-matched control group. The physiological level of the stress in the circumferential direction was also computed to assess the physiological operation range of healthy and diseased ascending aortas. The mean physiological wall stress acting on pathologic aortas was found to be far from rupture, with factors of safety (defined as the ratio of tensile strength to the mean wall stress) larger than six. In contrast, the physiological operation of pathologic vessels lays in the stiff part of the response curve, losing part of its function of damping the pressure waves from the heart.

Behaviour of steel prestressing wires under extreme conditions of strain rate and temperature

The purpose of this paper is to provide information on the behaviour of steel prestressing wires under likely conditions that could be expected during a fire or impact loads. Four loadings were investigated: a) the influence of strain rate – from 10–3 to 600 s–1 – at room temperature, b) the influence of temperature – from 24 to 600 °C – at low strain rate, c) the influence of the joint effect of strain rate and temperature, and d) damage after three plausible fire scenarios. At room temperature it was found that using “static” values is a safe option. At high temperatures our results are in agreement with design codes. Regarding the joint effect of temperature and strain rate, mechanical properties decrease with increasing temperature, although for a given temperature, yield stress and tensile strength increase with strain rate. The data provided can be used profitably to model the mechanical behaviour of steel wires under different scenarios.

Análisis de parámetros de fendas para la estimación de las propiedades mecánicas de vigas de madera de Pinus sylvestris L. Analysis of parameters for assessing drying fissures to estimate their influence on the mechanical properties of Pinus sylvestris L. wooden beams

El principal objetivo de este estudio es evaluar la influencia de las fendas de secado en las propiedades mecánicas de vigas de madera. Para esto, se utilizan 40 vigas de Pino silvestre (Pinus sylvestris L) de 4200 mm de longitud y 150x200 mm de sección que fueron ensayadas según norma EN 408. Las fendas se registran detalladamente atendiendo a su longitud y posición en cada cara de la viga, y midiendo el espesor y la profundidad cada 100mm a lo largo de la viga. Solo el 10% de la muestra es rechazada por las fendas, según los criterios establecidos por la norma española de clasificación visual UNE 56544. Para evaluar la influencia de las fendas en las propiedades mecánicas, se usan tres parámetros globales basados en el área, el volumen o la profundad de la fenda, y dos locales basados en la profundidad máxima y la profundidad en la zona de rotura. Además se determina la densidad de las piezas. Estos parámetros se comparan con las propiedades mecánicas (tensión de rotura, módulo de elasticidad y energía de rotura) y se encuentra escasa relación entre ellos. Las mejores correlaciones se encuentran entre los parámetros relacionados con la profundidad de las fendas, tanto con el módulo de elasticidad como con la tensión de rotura. The aim of this study is the evaluation of the influence of drying fissures on the mechanical properties of timber beams. For that purpose, 40 sawn timber pieces of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) with 150x200 mm in cross-section and 4200 mm in length have been tested according to EN 408, obtaining MOR and MOE. The fissures were registered in detail measuring their length and position in each face of the beam, and the thickness and depth every 100 mm in length. Only 10 % of the pieces were rejected because fissures, according to UNE 56544 Spanish visual grading standard. To evaluate the influence of fissures in mechanical properties three global parameters: Fissures Area Ratio or ratio between the area occupied by fissures and the total area in the neutral axis plane of the beam; Fissures Volume Ratio or ratio between volume of fissures and the total volume of the beam; Fissures Average Depth and two local parameters were used: Fissures Maximum Depth in the beam, and Fissures Depth in the broken zone of the beam. Also the density of the beams was registered. These parameters were compared with mechanical properties (tensile strength, elasticity modulus, and rupture energy) and the relationship between them had not been founded. The best relationship was founded between the elasticity modulus y the tensile strength with the parameters which included the depth of the fissures.

Coupled model of initiation and propagation of corrosion in reinforced concrete

Corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete due to chloride ingress is one of the main causes of the deterioration of reinforced concrete structures. Structures most affected by such a corrosion are marine zone buildings and structures exposed to de-icing salts like highways and bridges. Such process is accompanied by an increase in volume of the corrosión products on the rebarsconcrete interface. Depending on the level of oxidation, iron can expand as much as six times its original volume. This increase in volume exerts tensile stresses in the surrounding concrete which result in cracking and spalling of the concrete cover if the concrete tensile strength is exceeded. The mechanism by which steel embedded in concrete corrodes in presence of chloride is the local breakdown of the passive layer formed in the highly alkaline condition of the concrete. It is assumed that corrosion initiates when a critical chloride content reaches the rebar surface. The mathematical formulation idealized the corrosion sequence as a two-stage process: an initiation stage, during which chloride ions penetrate to the reinforcing steel surface and depassivate it, and a propagation stage, in which active corrosion takes place until cracking of the concrete cover has occurred. The aim of this research is to develop computer tools to evaluate the duration of the service life of reinforced concrete structures, considering both the initiation and propagation periods. Such tools must offer a friendly interface to facilitate its use by the researchers even though their background is not in numerical simulation. For the evaluation of the initiation period different tools have been developed: Program TavProbabilidade: provides means to carry out a probability analysis of a chloride ingress model. Such a tool is necessary due to the lack of data and general uncertainties associated with the phenomenon of the chloride diffusion. It differs from the deterministic approach because it computes not just a chloride profile at a certain age, but a range of chloride profiles for each probability or occurrence. Program TavProbabilidade_Fiabilidade: carries out reliability analyses of the initiation period. It takes into account the critical value of the chloride concentration on the steel that causes breakdown of the passive layer and the beginning of the propagation stage. It differs from the deterministic analysis in that it does not predict if the corrosion is going to begin or not, but to quantifies the probability of corrosion initiation. Program TavDif_1D: was created to do a one dimension deterministic analysis of the chloride diffusion process by the finite element method (FEM) which numerically solves Fick’second Law. Despite of the different FEM solver already developed in one dimension, the decision to create a new code (TavDif_1D) was taken because of the need to have a solver with friendly interface for pre- and post-process according to the need of IETCC. An innovative tool was also developed with a systematic method devised to compare the ability of the different 1D models to predict the actual evolution of chloride ingress based on experimental measurements, and also to quantify the degree of agreement of the models with each others. For the evaluation of the entire service life of the structure: a computer program has been developed using finite elements method to do the coupling of both service life periods: initiation and propagation. The program for 2D (TavDif_2D) allows the complementary use of two external programs in a unique friendly interface: • GMSH - an finite element mesh generator and post-processing viewer • OOFEM – a finite element solver. This program (TavDif_2D) is responsible to decide in each time step when and where to start applying the boundary conditions of fracture mechanics module in function of the amount of chloride concentration and corrosion parameters (Icorr, etc). This program is also responsible to verify the presence and the degree of fracture in each element to send the Information of diffusion coefficient variation with the crack width. • GMSH - an finite element mesh generator and post-processing viewer • OOFEM – a finite element solver. The advantages of the FEM with the interface provided by the tool are: • the flexibility to input the data such as material property and boundary conditions as time dependent function. • the flexibility to predict the chloride concentration profile for different geometries. • the possibility to couple chloride diffusion (initiation stage) with chemical and mechanical behavior (propagation stage). The OOFEM code had to be modified to accept temperature, humidity and the time dependent values for the material properties, which is necessary to adequately describe the environmental variations. A 3-D simulation has been performed to simulate the behavior of the beam on both, action of the external load and the internal load caused by the corrosion products, using elements of imbedded fracture in order to plot the curve of the deflection of the central region of the beam versus the external load to compare with the experimental data.

Mechanical properties of self-consolidating concrete using conventional concrete models

The objective of this study is to analyze the applicability of current models used for estimating the mechanical properties of conventional concrete to self-consolidating concrete (SCC). The mechanical properties evaluated are modulus of elasticity, tensile strength,and modulus of rupture. As part of the study, it was necessary to build an extensive database that included the proportions and mechanical properties of 627 mixtures from 138 different references. The same models that are currently used for calculating the mechanical properties of conventional concrete were applied to SCC to evaluate their applicability to this type of concrete. The models considered are the ACI 318, ACI 363R, and EC2. These are the most commonly used models worldwide. In the first part of the study, the overall behavior and adaptability of the different models to SCC is evaluated. The specific characterization parameters for each concrete mixture are used to calculate the various mechanical properties applying the different estimation models. The second part of the analysis consists of comparing the experimental results of all the mixtures included in the database with the estimated results to evaluate the applicability of these models to SCC. Various statistical procedures, such as regression analysis and residual analysis, are used to compare the predicted and measured properties. It terms of general applicability, the evaluated models are suitable for estimating the modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and modulus of rupture of SCC. These models have a rather low sensitivity, however, and adjust well only to mean values. This is because the models use the compressive strength as the main variable to characterize the concrete and do not consider other variables that affect these properties.

Estudio de hormigones reciclados no estructurales fabricados con árido reciclado mixto : propiedades mecánicas y expansión debida al contenido de sulfatos

El objetivo principal de este trabajo de investigación es estudiar las posibilidades de utilización del árido reciclado mixto para un hormigón reciclado en aplicaciones no estructurales, justificando mediante la experimentación la validez para esta aplicación, tanto del árido reciclado como del hormigón reciclado. Esta tesis se centró en los aspectos más restrictivos y limitativos en la utilización de los áridos mixtos en hormigón reciclado, basándose tanto en la normativa internacional existente como en los resultados obtenidos en los estudios bibliográficos consultados. La primera tarea realizada fue la caracterización completa de las propiedades del árido reciclado mixto, recogiendo especialmente los siguientes aspectos: granulometría, contenido de finos, absorción y densidades, composición del árido reciclado, índice de lajas, coeficiente de Los Ángeles, partículas ligeras y contenido de sulfatos. De este estudio de los áridos reciclados, se han destacado relaciones entre las propiedades. Las diferentes correlaciones permiten proponer criterios de calidad de un árido reciclado mixto para un hormigón reciclado. Se ha elegido un árido reciclado mixto entre los estudiados, de características límite admisibles, para obtener resultados conservadores sobre el hormigón reciclado fabricado con él. En una segunda etapa, se ha realizado un estudio de dosificación completo del hormigón reciclado, evaluando la consistencia del hormigón en estado fresco y la resistencia a compresión del hormigón en estado endurecido y se ha comparado con las mismas propiedades de un hormigón convencional. Se ha analizado la capacidad de absorción del árido conseguida con los métodos de presaturación empleados y en función de su estado de humedad, para poder evaluar las relaciones agua/cemento totales y efectivas del hormigón. Se ha estudiado el efecto de estos dos parámetros tanto en la consistencia como en la resistencia del hormigón reciclado. Finalmente, se ha estudiado el hormigón fabricado con un 50% y 100% de una partida de árido reciclado mixto de calidad admisible y se han ensayado las siguientes propiedades: consistencia, resistencia a compresión, resistencia a tracción indirecta, módulo de elasticidad dinámico, cambios de longitud, porosidad abierta y microscopía. Para analizar el efecto de los sulfatos, se han añadido artificialmente cantidades de yeso controladas en el hormigón reciclado. Se fabricaron hormigones con dos tipos de cemento, un cemento CEM I 42,5 R con elevado contenido de C3A, que debería dar lugar a expansiones mayores y un cemento con adiciones puzolánicas CEM II A-P 42,5 R, que atenuaría el comportamiento expansivo en el hormigón. Los resultados finales indican que la utilización del árido reciclado mixto en proporciones de hasta un 50%, permiten cubrir la gama de resistencias más exigentes dentro del hormigón no estructural. El contenido de sulfatos puede variar desde un 0,8% hasta un 1,9%, según el tipo de cemento y la proporción de sustitución del árido natural por árido reciclado mixto. Tanto en el caso del árido reciclado como en el hormigón, se ha realizado un estudio comparativo entre el conjunto de datos recopilados en la bibliografía y los obtenidos en este estudio experimental. En varias propiedades del hormigón reciclado, se han comparado los resultados con las fórmulas de la Instrucción EHE-08, para establecer unos coeficientes de corrección a aplicar a un hormigón reciclado con fines no estructurales. The main objective of this investigation work is to study the possibilities of using recycled mixed aggregate for a recycled concrete in non structural applications, justifying by means of experimentation both the validity of the recycled aggregate and recycled concrete. This thesis focused on the most restrictive and limiting aspects in the mixed aggregate use in recycled concrete, on the basis of the international standards as well on the results obtained in the bibliographic studies consulted. The first task achieved was the complete charcaterization of the mixed recycled aggregate properties, specially the following aspects: grain size analysis, fines content, absorption and densities, recycled aggregate composition, flakiness index, Los Angeles coefficient, lightweight particles and sulphate content. From this study, correlations between the properties were highlighted. The different correlations make possible to propose quality criterions for recycled mixed aggregate in concrete. Among the recycled aggregates studied, one of acceptable characteristics but near the limits established, was chosen to obtain conservative results in the recycled concrete made with it. In a second step, a complete recycled concrete mix design was made, to evaluate concrete consistency in the fresh state and concrete compressive strength in the hardened state and its properties were compared to those of a control concrete. The aggregate absorption capacity was analized with the presaturation methods achieved and in function of its state of humidity, to evaluate the total and effective water/cement ratios. The effect of these two parameters, both in consistency and compressive strength of recycled concrete, was studied. Finally, the concrete made with 50% and 100% of the elected recycled mixed aggregate was studied and the following concrete properties were tested: consistency, compressive strength, tensile strength, dynamic modulus of elasticity, length changes, water absorption under vacuum and microscopy. To analize the effect of sulphate content, some controlled quantities of gypsum were artificially added to the recycled concrete. Concretes with two types of cement were made, a cement CEM I 42,5 R with a high content of C3A, that would lead to major expansions and a cement with puzzolanic additions CEM II A-P 42,5 R that would lower the expansive behaviour of concrete. The final results indicate that the use of mixed recycled aggregate in proportions up to 50% make possible to cover the overall demanding strengths within the non structural concrete. Sulphates content can range between 0,8% and 1,9%, in function of the type of cement and the proportion of natural aggregate replacement by mixed recycled one. Both in the case of recycled aggregate and concrete, a comparative study was made between the data coming from the bibliography and those obtained in the experimental study. In several recycled concrete properties, the results were compared to the formulas of Spanish Instruction of Structural Concrete (Instruction EHE-08), to establish some correction coefficients to apply for a non structural recycled concrete.

Experimental and numerical analysis of reinforced concrete elements subjected to blast loading

El hormigón es uno de los materiales de construcción más empleados en la actualidad debido a sus buenas prestaciones mecánicas, moldeabilidad y economía de obtención, entre otras ventajas. Es bien sabido que tiene una buena resistencia a compresión y una baja resistencia a tracción, por lo que se arma con barras de acero para formar el hormigón armado, material que se ha convertido por méritos propios en la solución constructiva más importante de nuestra época. A pesar de ser un material profusamente utilizado, hay aspectos del comportamiento del hormigón que todavía no son completamente conocidos, como es el caso de su respuesta ante los efectos de una explosión. Este es un campo de especial relevancia, debido a que los eventos, tanto intencionados como accidentales, en los que una estructura se ve sometida a una explosión son, por desgracia, relativamente frecuentes. La solicitación de una estructura ante una explosión se produce por el impacto sobre la misma de la onda de presión generada en la detonación. La aplicación de esta carga sobre la estructura es muy rápida y de muy corta duración. Este tipo de acciones se denominan cargas impulsivas, y pueden ser hasta cuatro órdenes de magnitud más rápidas que las cargas dinámicas impuestas por un terremoto. En consecuencia, no es de extrañar que sus efectos sobre las estructuras y sus materiales sean muy distintos que las que producen las cargas habitualmente consideradas en ingeniería. En la presente tesis doctoral se profundiza en el conocimiento del comportamiento material del hormigón sometido a explosiones. Para ello, es crucial contar con resultados experimentales de estructuras de hormigón sometidas a explosiones. Este tipo de resultados es difícil de encontrar en la literatura científica, ya que estos ensayos han sido tradicionalmente llevados a cabo en el ámbito militar y los resultados obtenidos no son de dominio público. Por otra parte, en las campañas experimentales con explosiones llevadas a cabo por instituciones civiles el elevado coste de acceso a explosivos y a campos de prueba adecuados no permite la realización de ensayos con un elevado número de muestras. Por este motivo, la dispersión experimental no es habitualmente controlada. Sin embargo, en elementos de hormigón armado sometidos a explosiones, la dispersión experimental es muy acusada, en primer lugar, por la propia heterogeneidad del hormigón, y en segundo, por la dificultad inherente a la realización de ensayos con explosiones, por motivos tales como dificultades en las condiciones de contorno, variabilidad del explosivo, o incluso cambios en las condiciones atmosféricas. Para paliar estos inconvenientes, en esta tesis doctoral se ha diseñado un novedoso dispositivo que permite ensayar hasta cuatro losas de hormigón bajo la misma detonación, lo que además de proporcionar un número de muestras estadísticamente representativo, supone un importante ahorro de costes. Con este dispositivo se han ensayado 28 losas de hormigón, tanto armadas como en masa, de dos dosificaciones distintas. Pero además de contar con datos experimentales, también es importante disponer de herramientas de cálculo para el análisis y diseño de estructuras sometidas a explosiones. Aunque existen diversos métodos analíticos, hoy por hoy las técnicas de simulación numérica suponen la alternativa más avanzada y versátil para el cálculo de elementos estructurales sometidos a cargas impulsivas. Sin embargo, para obtener resultados fiables es crucial contar con modelos constitutivos de material que tengan en cuenta los parámetros que gobiernan el comportamiento para el caso de carga en estudio. En este sentido, cabe destacar que la mayoría de los modelos constitutivos desarrollados para el hormigón a altas velocidades de deformación proceden del ámbito balístico, donde dominan las grandes tensiones de compresión en el entorno local de la zona afectada por el impacto. En el caso de los elementos de hormigón sometidos a explosiones, las tensiones de compresión son mucho más moderadas, siendo las tensiones de tracción generalmente las causantes de la rotura del material. En esta tesis doctoral se analiza la validez de algunos de los modelos disponibles, confirmando que los parámetros que gobiernan el fallo de las losas de hormigón armado ante explosiones son la resistencia a tracción y su ablandamiento tras rotura. En base a los resultados anteriores se ha desarrollado un modelo constitutivo para el hormigón ante altas velocidades de deformación, que sólo tiene en cuenta la rotura por tracción. Este modelo parte del de fisura cohesiva embebida con discontinuidad fuerte, desarrollado por Planas y Sancho, que ha demostrado su capacidad en la predicción de la rotura a tracción de elementos de hormigón en masa. El modelo ha sido modificado para su implementación en el programa comercial de integración explícita LS-DYNA, utilizando elementos finitos hexaédricos e incorporando la dependencia de la velocidad de deformación para permitir su utilización en el ámbito dinámico. El modelo es estrictamente local y no requiere de remallado ni conocer previamente la trayectoria de la fisura. Este modelo constitutivo ha sido utilizado para simular dos campañas experimentales, probando la hipótesis de que el fallo de elementos de hormigón ante explosiones está gobernado por el comportamiento a tracción, siendo de especial relevancia el ablandamiento del hormigón. Concrete is nowadays one of the most widely used building materials because of its good mechanical properties, moldability and production economy, among other advantages. As it is known, it has high compressive and low tensile strengths and for this reason it is reinforced with steel bars to form reinforced concrete, a material that has become the most important constructive solution of our time. Despite being such a widely used material, there are some aspects of concrete performance that are not yet fully understood, as it is the case of its response to the effects of an explosion. This is a topic of particular relevance because the events, both intentional and accidental, in which a structure is subjected to an explosion are, unfortunately, relatively common. The loading of a structure due to an explosive event occurs due to the impact of the pressure shock wave generated in the detonation. The application of this load on the structure is very fast and of very short duration. Such actions are called impulsive loads, and can be up to four orders of magnitude faster than the dynamic loads imposed by an earthquake. Consequently, it is not surprising that their effects on structures and materials are very different than those that cause the loads usually considered in engineering. This thesis broadens the knowledge about the material behavior of concrete subjected to explosions. To that end, it is crucial to have experimental results of concrete structures subjected to explosions. These types of results are difficult to find in the scientific literature, as these tests have traditionally been carried out by armies of different countries and the results obtained are classified. Moreover, in experimental campaigns with explosives conducted by civil institutions the high cost of accessing explosives and the lack of proper test fields does not allow for the testing of a large number of samples. For this reason, the experimental scatter is usually not controlled. However, in reinforced concrete elements subjected to explosions the experimental dispersion is very pronounced. First, due to the heterogeneity of concrete, and secondly, because of the difficulty inherent to testing with explosions, for reasons such as difficulties in the boundary conditions, variability of the explosive, or even atmospheric changes. To overcome these drawbacks, in this thesis we have designed a novel device that allows for testing up to four concrete slabs under the same detonation, which apart from providing a statistically representative number of samples, represents a significant saving in costs. A number of 28 slabs were tested using this device. The slabs were both reinforced and plain concrete, and two different concrete mixes were used. Besides having experimental data, it is also important to have computational tools for the analysis and design of structures subjected to explosions. Despite the existence of several analytical methods, numerical simulation techniques nowadays represent the most advanced and versatile alternative for the assessment of structural elements subjected to impulsive loading. However, to obtain reliable results it is crucial to have material constitutive models that take into account the parameters that govern the behavior for the load case under study. In this regard it is noteworthy that most of the developed constitutive models for concrete at high strain rates arise from the ballistic field, dominated by large compressive stresses in the local environment of the area affected by the impact. In the case of concrete elements subjected to an explosion, the compressive stresses are much more moderate, while tensile stresses usually cause material failure. This thesis discusses the validity of some of the available models, confirming that the parameters governing the failure of reinforced concrete slabs subjected to blast are the tensile strength and softening behaviour after failure. Based on these results we have developed a constitutive model for concrete at high strain rates, which only takes into account the ultimate tensile strength. This model is based on the embedded Cohesive Crack Model with Strong Discontinuity Approach developed by Planas and Sancho, which has proved its ability in predicting the tensile fracture of plain concrete elements. The model has been modified for its implementation in the commercial explicit integration program LS-DYNA, using hexahedral finite elements and incorporating the dependence of the strain rate, to allow for its use in dynamic domain. The model is strictly local and does not require remeshing nor prior knowledge of the crack path. This constitutive model has been used to simulate two experimental campaigns, confirming the hypothesis that the failure of concrete elements subjected to explosions is governed by their tensile response, being of particular relevance the softening behavior of concrete.

Sequential origin in the high performance properties of spider dragline silk

Major ampullate (MA) dragline silk supports spider orb webs, combining strength and extensibility in the toughest biomaterial. MA silk evolved ~376 MYA and identifying how evolutionary changes in proteins influenced silk mechanics is crucial for biomimetics, but is hindered by high spinning plasticity. We use supercontraction to remove that variation and characterize MA silk across the spider phylogeny. We show that mechanical performance is conserved within, but divergent among, major lineages, evolving in correlation with discrete changes in proteins. Early MA silk tensile strength improved rapidly with the origin of GGX amino acid motifs and increased repetitiveness. Tensile strength then maximized in basal entelegyne spiders, ~230 MYA. Toughness subsequently improved through increased extensibility within orb spiders, coupled with the origin of a novel protein (MaSp2). Key changes in MA silk proteins therefore correlate with the sequential evolution high performance orb spider silk and could aid design of biomimetic fibers.