Theory of Handwriting

Handwriting production is viewed as a constrained modulation of an underlying oscillatory process. Coupled oscillations in horizontal and vertical directions produce letter forms, and when superimposed on a rightward constant velocity horizontal sweep result in spatially separated letters. Modulation of the vertical oscillation is responsible for control of letter height, either through altering the frequency or altering the acceleration amplitude. Modulation of the horizontal oscillation is responsible for control of corner shape through altering phase or amplitude. The vertical velocity zero crossing in the velocity space diagram is important from the standpoint of control. Changing the horizontal velocity value at this zero crossing controls corner shape, and such changes can be effected through modifying the horizontal oscillation amplitude and phase. Changing the slope at this zero crossing controls writing slant; this slope depends on the horizontal and vertical velocity zero amplitudes and on the relative phase difference. Letter height modulation is also best applied at the vertical velocity zero crossing to preserve an even baseline. The corner shape and slant constraints completely determine the amplitude and phase relations between the two oscillations. Under these constraints interletter separation is not an independent parameter. This theory applies generally to a number of acceleration oscillation patterns such as sinusoidal, rectangular and trapezoidal oscillations. The oscillation theory also provides an explanation for how handwriting might degenerate with speed. An implementation of the theory in the context of the spring muscle model is developed. Here sinusoidal oscillations arise from a purely mechanical sources; orthogonal antagonistic spring pairs generate particular cycloids depending on the initial conditions. Modulating between cycloids can be achieved by changing the spring zero settings at the appropriate times. Frequency can be modulated either by shifting between coactivation and alternating activation of the antagonistic springs or by presuming variable spring constant springs. An acceleration and position measuring apparatus was developed for measurements of human handwriting. Measurements of human writing are consistent with the oscillation theory. It is shown that the minimum energy movement for the spring muscle is bang-coast-bang. For certain parameter values a singular arc solution can be shown to be minimizing. Experimental measurements however indicate that handwriting is not a minimum energy movement.

A Theory of Networks for Appxoimation and Learning

Learning an input-output mapping from a set of examples, of the type that many neural networks have been constructed to perform, can be regarded as synthesizing an approximation of a multi-dimensional function, that is solving the problem of hypersurface reconstruction. From this point of view, this form of learning is closely related to classical approximation techniques, such as generalized splines and regularization theory. This paper considers the problems of an exact representation and, in more detail, of the approximation of linear and nolinear mappings in terms of simpler functions of fewer variables. Kolmogorov's theorem concerning the representation of functions of several variables in terms of functions of one variable turns out to be almost irrelevant in the context of networks for learning. We develop a theoretical framework for approximation based on regularization techniques that leads to a class of three-layer networks that we call Generalized Radial Basis Functions (GRBF), since they are mathematically related to the well-known Radial Basis Functions, mainly used for strict interpolation tasks. GRBF networks are not only equivalent to generalized splines, but are also closely related to pattern recognition methods such as Parzen windows and potential functions and to several neural network algorithms, such as Kanerva's associative memory, backpropagation and Kohonen's topology preserving map. They also have an interesting interpretation in terms of prototypes that are synthesized and optimally combined during the learning stage. The paper introduces several extensions and applications of the technique and discusses intriguing analogies with neurobiological data.

Extensions of a Theory of Networks for Approximation and Learning: Outliers and Negative Examples

Learning an input-output mapping from a set of examples can be regarded as synthesizing an approximation of a multi-dimensional function. From this point of view, this form of learning is closely related to regularization theory. In this note, we extend the theory by introducing ways of dealing with two aspects of learning: learning in the presence of unreliable examples and learning from positive and negative examples. The first extension corresponds to dealing with outliers among the sparse data. The second one corresponds to exploiting information about points or regions in the range of the function that are forbidden.

A Theory of How the Brain Might Work

I wish to propose a quite speculative new version of the grandmother cell theory to explain how the brain, or parts of it, may work. In particular, I discuss how the visual system may learn to recognize 3D objects. The model would apply directly to the cortical cells involved in visual face recognition. I will also outline the relation of our theory to existing models of the cerebellum and of motor control. Specific biophysical mechanisms can be readily suggested as part of a basic type of neural circuitry that can learn to approximate multidimensional input-output mappings from sets of examples and that is expected to be replicated in different regions of the brain and across modalities. The main points of the theory are: -the brain uses modules for multivariate function approximation as basic components of several of its information processing subsystems. -these modules are realized as HyperBF networks (Poggio and Girosi, 1990a,b). -HyperBF networks can be implemented in terms of biologically plausible mechanisms and circuitry. The theory predicts a specific type of population coding that represents an extension of schemes such as look-up tables. I will conclude with some speculations about the trade-off between memory and computation and the evolution of intelligence.

Motivated Action Theory: A Formal Theory of Causal Reasoning

When we reason about change over time, causation provides an implicit preference: we prefer sequences of situations in which one situation leads causally to the next, rather than sequences in which one situation follows another at random and without causal connections. In this paper, we explore the problem of temporal reasoning --- reasoning about change over time --- and the crucial role that causation plays in our intuitions. We examine previous approaches to temporal reasoning, and their shortcomings, in light of this analysis. We propose a new system for causal reasoning, motivated action theory, which builds upon causation as a crucial preference creterion. Motivated action theory solves the traditional problems of both forward and backward reasoning, and additionally provides a basis for a new theory of explanation.

Toward a Theory of Representation Design

This research is concerned with designing representations for analytical reasoning problems (of the sort found on the GRE and LSAT). These problems test the ability to draw logical conclusions. A computer program was developed that takes as input a straightforward predicate calculus translation of a problem, requests additional information if necessary, decides what to represent and how, designs representations capturing the constraints of the problem, and creates and executes a LISP program that uses those representations to produce a solution. Even though these problems are typically difficult for theorem provers to solve, the LISP program that uses the designed representations is very efficient.

Towards a Computational Theory of Definite Anaphora Comprehension in English Discourse

This report investigates the process of focussing as a description and explanation of the comprehension of certain anaphoric expressions in English discourse. The investigation centers on the interpretation of definite anaphora, that is, on the personal pronouns, and noun phrases used with a definite article the, this or that. Focussing is formalized as a process in which a speaker centers attention on a particular aspect of the discourse. An algorithmic description specifies what the speaker can focus on and how the speaker may change the focus of the discourse as the discourse unfolds. The algorithm allows for a simple focussing mechanism to be constructed: and element in focus, an ordered collection of alternate foci, and a stack of old foci. The data structure for the element in focus is a representation which encodes a limted set of associations between it and other elements from teh discourse as well as from general knowledge.

Implementation of a Theory of Edge Detection

This report describes the implementation of a theory of edge detection, proposed by Marr and Hildreth (1979). According to this theory, the image is first processed independently through a set of different size filters, whose shape is the Laplacian of a Gaussian, ***. Zero-crossings in the output of these filters mark the positions of intensity changes at different resolutions. Information about these zero-crossings is then used for deriving a full symbolic description of changes in intensity in the image, called the raw primal sketch. The theory is closely tied with early processing in the human visual systems. In this report, we first examine the critical properties of the initial filters used in the edge detection process, both from a theoretical and practical standpoint. The implementation is then used as a test bed for exploring aspects of the human visual system; in particular, acuity and hyperacuity. Finally, we present some preliminary results concerning the relationship between zero-crossings detected at different resolutions, and some observations relevant to the process by which the human visual system integrates descriptions of intensity changes obtained at different resolutions.

A Theory of Quantitative Inference Applied to a Mechanical Design Compiler

This thesis presents the ideas underlying a computer program that takes as input a schematic of a mechanical or hydraulic power transmission system, plus specifications and a utility function, and returns catalog numbers from predefined catalogs for the optimal selection of components implementing the design. Unlike programs for designing single components or systems, the program provides the designer with a high level "language" in which to compose new designs. It then performs some of the detailed design process. The process of "compilation" is based on a formalization of quantitative inferences about hierarchically organized sets of artifacts and operating conditions. This allows the design compilation without the exhaustive enumeration of alternatives.